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The 

Federal  Civil  Service 

as  a  Career 

A  Manual  for  Applicants  for  Positions 

and  Those  in  the  Civil  Service 

of  the  Nation 


By 

El  Bie  K.  Foltz 


G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons 

New  York  and  London 
Gbe   Iknfckerbocfter   press 

1909 


,.   • 


Copyright,  igog 

BY 

EL  BIE  K.  FOLTZ 


TTbe  fJnfcfecrbocfeer  lpre?s.  Iftcw  WorJi 


LIBRARY 

STATE  TEACHERS  COIAEGE 
SAMTA  BARBARA.  CALIFORNIA 


J..LX 


PREFACE 


THE  young  American  rarely  has  a  place  ready 
made  for  him  when  he  begins  his  business 
or  professional  life :  he  has  to  choose  his  path,  and 
make  his  own  way  along  it.  And,  in  so  doing, 
it  behooves  him  to  look  well  to  his  fitness,  for 
the  world  does  not  deal  tenderly  with  failures. 
It  is  for  those  who  are  thinking  of  the  Federal 
civil  service  as  a  career  that  this  book  is  intended. 
There  is  a  host  of  works  of  practical  value  to 
the  young  man  about  to  take  up  a  vocation — 
for  the  man  who  would  enter  the  learned  pro- 
fessions, for  the  technologist,  for  the  mechanic, 
for  the  business  man.  But  for  the  aspirant  to 
a  career  in  the  civil  service  there  has  not  been, 
up  to  the  present,  a  single  book  to  consult.  There 
are  many  treatises  on  the  theory  and  history 
of  government  and  articles  published  in  magazines 
here  and  there,  designed  primarily  for  the  use 
of  legislators  and  economists;  but  the  man 
looking  to  Government  service  wants  practical 
information,  not  theory.  And  it  is  this  practical 
information  which  the  present  volume  offers  to 
American  citizens  who  desire  to  know  the  various 
kinds  of  work  open  to  civil  servants,  and  the 
chances  of  success  therein. 


IV 


Preface 


Early  in  the  history  of  our  country  it  became 
manifest  that  frequent  change  in  the  Govern- 
ment's civil  personnel  was  not  conducive  to  the 
best  results.  Tenure  of  office,  entirely  dependent 
upon  political  preference,  offered  no  inducement 
for  civilians  to  make  a  study  of  conditions  when 
to-morrow  might  see  another  party  voted  into 
power,  and  themselves  displaced.  It  is  obvious 
that  this  system  invited  the  low  ideals  and  loose 
ethics  typically  voiced  in  the  notorious  sentiment 
attributed  to  President  Jackson,  "To  the  victor 
belong  the  spoils." 

With  a  strange  patience  our  people  endured 
the  spoils  system  for  one  hundred  years.  During 
this  time  a  healthy  agitation  for  reform  began 
to  make  itself  felt,  reaching  fruition  in  1883. 
Congress  heard  the  demand  and  passed  what 
is  known  as  the  Civil  Service  Act.  This  act  — 
with  the  amendments  that  followed — provided 
for  the  classification  of  executive  positions,  and 
assured  reasonable  permanence  in  office  to  the 
main  body  of  workers.  The  law  was  at  first 
regarded  with  much  misgiving,  but  a  quarter  of 
a  century  under  its  guidance  has  proved  the 
wisdom  of  those  who  framed  it.  As  an  experiment 
a  few  branches  only  of  the  executive  service 
were  brought  under  the  law,  but,  the  beneficial 
features  becoming  evident,  branch  after  branch 
was  added,  till  now  two  thirds  of  the  whole 
executive  service  is  embraced  by  it. 

The   private   citizen   has   but   a    faint   idea   of 


Preface  v 

the  workings  of  the  governmental  machinery. 
This  ignorance  is  not  due  so  much  to  an  attitude 
of  indifference  as  to  the  lack  of  concentrated 
information.  The  average  man  has  neither  the 
time  nor  the  inclination  to  search  lengthy  reports 
and  voluminous  public  documents  for  facts  that 
should  be  provided  in  one  short  volume.  An 
effort  is  made,  in  this  book,  to  give  him  the 
information  he  desires,  concisely  stated  and  free 
from  technicalities.  The  story  told  is  not  the 
result  of  reading;  it  is  based  on  observation  and 
actual  work  in  the  civil  service.  The  facts  brought 
out  are  related  in  such  a  way  that  they  may  be 
of  practical  use  to  all,  particularly  (i)  to  the 
applicant  for  a  Federal  position,  (2)  to  the  holder 
of  such  a  position,  (3)  to  the  educator,  and  (4) 
to  the  busy  citizen. 

The  requirements  for  appointment  in  the 
Federal  civil  service  are  constantly  becoming  more 
rigid.  The  time  is  here  when  the  applicant  must 
have  special  preparation  if  he  would  succeed. 
And,  in  order  to  prepare  himself  in  a  specialty, 
he  should  know  something  of  the  conditions 
and  methods  in  vogue.  To  meet  the  best  success 
he  must  dismiss  all  notions  of  chance  and  sudden 
rise  to  high  office.  Success  in  the  Government, 
as  in  private  life,  is  a  matter  of  hard  work  and 
close  attention  to  business.  To  the  man  who  is 
prepared,  the  Federal  civil  service  offers  a  career 
honorable  and  remunerative.  There  is  a  demand 
for  capable  men,  and  this  demand  is  increasing. 


vi  Preface 

Effort  does  not  cease  with  appointment  to 
office.  On  the  contrary,  the  holder  of  a  civil- 
service  position  must  develop  his  efficiency  from 
day  to  day;  his  mind  must  be  kept  young  and 
active,  his  character  unimpeachable.  He  must 
always  bear  in  mind  that  he  represents  a  great 
Government,  and  he  must  be  ever  ready  to  answer 
the  call  to  a  better  post. 

The  history  of  our  country  is  one  of  growth. 
We  are  a  young,  vigorous  nation.  New  problems 
are  presenting  themselves  for  solution,  problems 
of  internal  as  well  as  international  interest.  It 
may  be  a  problem  concerning  the  best  method 
of  distributing  mail;  it  may  refer  to  a  question 
of  business  system;  it  may  involve  a  treaty. 
Whatever  the  problem,  it  is  the  office-holder  to 
whom  the  nation  looks  for  solution.  Keeping  this 
in  mind,  the  civil-service  man  must  grow  and  be 
ready  to  respond  to  the  voice  of  opportunity. 

Our  educators  have  a  new  possibility  set  before 
them.  There  are  to-day  nearly  four  hundred 
thousand  Federal  office-holders,  yet  no  higher 
institution  of  learning  offers  a  course  in  civil 
service.  There  are  many  courses  in  political 
economy  and  theory  of  government ;  but  the  only 
place  the  young  man  may  go  for  instruction  in 
civil-service  practice  is  to  the  commercial  school. 
These  schools  are  doing  excellent  work.  It  would 
seem  that  the  time  is  ripe  for  the  establishment  of 
a  college  course  leading  to  a  degree  in  practical 
government. 


Preface  vii 

That  there  are  faults  in  the  civil  service  is  not 
open  to  question;  that  there  will  continue  to 
be  faults  is  equally  certain.  It  does  not  take  a 
wise  man  to  find  fault,  even  with  the  best.  It 
is  not  my  purpose  to  point  out  faults,  only  so 
far  as  the  citizen,  in  the  performance  of  his  duty, 
may  remedy  them.  As  I  conceive  it,  the  man 
who  is  intent  upon  doing  his  best  at  all  times  is 
too  busy  to  waste  time  in  fault-finding. 

If  this  monograph  may  indicate  the  way  for 
the  young  man  aspiring  to  Government  honors, 
and  implant  new  vigor  and  new  hopes  into  the 
office-holder,  it  will  serve  a  good  purpose.  If, 
in  addition,  it  may  convey  to  the  American 
people  more  light  upon  one  of  our  great  institu- 
tions, I  shall  consider  the  time  spent  in  collecting 
the  facts  indeed  well  invested. 

E.  B.  K.  F. 

Washington, 

December  16,  1908. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

I.     Government  Organization       .          .  i 

II.     Government  Business  Methods         .  22 

III.  The  Merit  System    ....  38 

IV.  The  Merit  System  {Continued)            .  58 
V.     Preparation    .....  83 

VI.     Examination    .....  105 

VII.     Appointment    .....  124 

VIII.     Salaries            .          .          .          .  151 

IX.     Salaries  {Continued)  .  .  .174 

X.     Opportunities           ....  186 

XI.     The  Nation's  Problems    .          .          .  213 

XII.     Government  Service  as  a  Career    .  226 

XIII.  Government  Service  as  a  Stepping- 

Stone  ......  255 

XIV.  Faults  and  Ethics  ....  271 

XV.     Women   in  Government  Service      .  292 

XVI.     The    College    Graduate    in    Public 

Life      ......  307 


Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 


CHAPTER  I 

GOVERNMENT    ORGANIZATION 

IT  is  the  duty  of  every  person  to  know  something 
of  the  government  under  which  he  lives.  This 
obligation  applies  to  the  resident  alien,  but  has 
especial  significance  to  the  citizen,  whose  conduct 
the  laws  are  primarily  designed  to  rule.  Inas- 
much as  government  provides  the  foundation  of 
society,  it  is  incumbent  upon  the  people  to  famil- 
iarize themselves  with  that  authority,  which  so 
vitally  affects  their  welfare.  The  responsibility 
rests  upon  the  units  of  every  nation  whether  sub- 
ject to  the  sway  of  despotism  or  the  bonds  of  a 
constitution,  and  is  of  particular  importance  to 
those  priding  themselves  on  self-government. 

In  fulfilling  this  political  duty  it  should  be  the 
aim  of  inquirers  to  direct  attention  to  the  prin- 
ciples that  underlie  the  system  of  government 
under  which  they  live.  A  glance  at  a  few  laws 
or  an  acquaintance  gained  through  haphazard 
sources  is  inadequate  to  convey  an  intelligent  idea 


2        Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

of  the  reason  behind  official  acts.  The  vast 
ramifications  and  minute  technicalities  of  ad- 
ministration require  years  of  close  study  to  master 
and  properly  fall  within  the  province  of  the  lawyer, 
but  the  broad  principles  upon  which  they  rest 
may  be  learned  by  anyone  taking  a  little  trouble 
to  inform  himself. 

Where  two  persons  unite  in  a  common  purpose 
one  of  them  must  lead.  This  is  proper  and  logical ; 
responsible  leadership  strengthens  both  by  direct- 
ing their  combined  energies  with  the  least  confu- 
sion. In  the  early  evolution  of  society  the  family 
represented  the  government,  and  every  family  was 
compelled  to  have  a  head  to  insure  stability,  the 
choice  naturally  falling  to  the  strongest  member. 
This  arrangement  proved  so  valuable  for  offensive 
as  well  as  defensive  purposes  that  it  was  adopted 
by  various  branches  of  a  family,  which  united 
and  thus  formed  a  tribe.  As  groups  of  a  tribe 
emigrated  to  distant  parts  of  the  earth  they  lost 
their  common  allegiance  through  segregation, 
and  were  driven  by  the  stress  of  circumstance  to 
choose  their  own  leaders,  the  result  being  new 
tribes.  Oppression  by  neighboring  peoples  brought 
about  confederation  for  mutual  protection  and  a 
nation  was  born  with  one  person  as  its  head. 

Originally,  absolute  authority  was  vested  in 
the  nation's  head,  who  was  not  only  an  executive, 
but  a  law-giver  and  a  dispenser  of  justice,  per- 
forming this  triple  office  through  agents  appointed 
at  will.     Society  long  gave  universal  sanction  to 


Government  Organization  3 

this  plan;  and,  assuming  that  authority  could 
delegate  authority,  encouraged  the  inheritance  of 
regal  powers  and  provided  for  the  maintenance 
of  the  ruling  class  on  the  principle  that  protection 
is  worth  a  price. 

Absolutism  as  applied  to  government  holds 
unlimited  possibilities  for  good  or  for  bad.  Given 
a  monarch  of  extraordinary  wisdom  and  a  high 
sense  of  justice  a  nation  will  rise  to  pre-eminence 
under  his  hand.  The  average  man,  however,  is 
not  extraordinarily  wise  and  does  not  always 
possess  a  keen  sense  of  justice;  and,  as  the  sons 
of  great  men  are  seldom  great  themselves,  the 
absolute  monarch  has  frequently  proved  an 
oppressor.  Therefore,  with  enlightenment,  nations 
remodeled  their  governments  by  limiting  the 
powers  of  sovereigns  or  adopting  a  self-governing 
form,  until  to-day  the  absolute  monarch  is  all 
but  a  relic  so  far  as  civilization  is  concerned. 

The  government  of  a  limited  monarchy  as 
administered  at  present  possesses  all  the  cardinal 
essentials  of  liberty,  only  two  chief  principles 
marking  it  as  different  from  a  democracy:  An 
hereditary  nobility  and  a  well-regulated  elective 
franchise.  So  far  as  property  rights  and  personal 
safety  are  concerned,  the  republic  has  nothing 
better  to  offer. 

The  republican  form  of  government  is  not  a 
modern  institution;  many  ancient  peoples  at 
some  period  of  their  national  life  enjoyed  self- 
government  or,  in  many  instances,  did  not  enjoy 


4        Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

it.  The  theory  upon  which  a  republic  rests  is 
equality.  This  idea  has,  at  various  times  in  the 
world's  history,  formed  the  basis  of  communistic 
government,  a  plan  closely  resembling  the  pre- 
sent-day Socialism.  Such  governments,  however 
ideal,  have  not  withstood  the  test  of  time  owing 
to  the  lack  of  an  authoritative  head. 

All  forms  of  good  government  must  provide  a 
strong  centralized  authority  to  assure  the  nation's 
stability.  This  principle  not  only  covers  the 
monarchial  idea,  but  is  an  important  feature  of 
the  democracy.  Popular  representation  is  only 
popular  in  so  far  as  it  permits  individuals  to  have 
a  voice  in  saying  who  shall  govern  them.  Any 
interference  with  executive  authority,  except  by 
petition,  should  be  regarded  with  disfavor.  In 
the  event  a  national  adminstration  is  not  con- 
sidered progressive,  an  effective  weapon  is  had 
at  the  polls  and  the  matter  may  be  amicably 
corrected  by  ballot.  This  is  nowhere  better 
understood  and  practised  than  in  the  United 
States  of  America. 

The  right  to  vote  is  guaranteed  to  American 
citizens  by  the  Constitution  and  it  is  every  man's 
duty  to  exercise  this  right,  in  local  as  well  as  in 
national  elections.  The  idea  of  America's  founders 
was  that  this  should  be  a  government  distinctly 
of  and  by  the  people,  and  when  a  man  neglects  to 
cast  his  ballot  for  approval  or  disapproval  he 
marks  himself  as  a  poor  kind  of  citizen.  It  is  the 
non-voting  man   who   raises  the   loudest   outcry 


Government  Organization  5 

against  "corrupt  politics,"  either  virtuously  hold- 
ing himself  aloof  from  mingling  with  "depraved 
politicians"  or  advancing  the  weak  excuse  that 
he  "doesn't  want  to  be  bothered."  Nothing 
short  of  physical  incapacity  should  excuse  a  man 
from  voting  at  a  national  election. 

The  voter  should  ally  himself  with  the  party 
whose  platform  most  nearly  coincides  with  his 
personal  views  on  civil  government  and  vote  with 
that  party,  though  he  feel  certain  that  the  candi- 
date of  his  choice  has  no  possible  chance  of  election. 
The  most  unexpected  things  have  happened  in 
politics  and  they  are  as  sure  to  happen  in  the 
future  as  in  the  past.  Scarcely  an  election  passes 
without  its  surprises;  conservative  districts  some- 
times reverse  their  sentiment  and  sweep  an  ob- 
scure candidate  into  office.  Sometimes  a  single 
vote  decides  party  control. 

Casting  a  ballot  is  a  simple  procedure  and 
consumes  but  little  time,  yet  in  spite  of  this 
thousands  of  intelligent  men  throw  away  the 
privilege  that  their  forefathers  shed  their  blood 
to  secure.  This  negligence  is  particularly  notice- 
able among  the  so-called  higher  classes.  The 
illiterate  rarely  miss  the  opportunity  to  vote  and 
are  the  prey  of  the  demagogue  whose  individual 
ambitions  are  considered  without  reference  to  the 
principles  at  stake.  It  is  this  condition  in  Amer- 
ican politics,  this  lack  of  interest  by  the  men  who 
would  be  expected  to  have  the  deepest  interest 
in  public  affairs,  that  makes  municipal  corruption 


6        Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

possible.  If  every  man  performed  his  duty  to 
the  State  and  to  his  municipality  in  a  manner 
that  plain  citizenship  and  common-sense  dictate, 
and  made  it  his  business  to  advocate  good  govern- 
ment, as  the  makers  of  the  Constitution  intended, 
there  would  be  no  place  for  corruption  in  politics. 
Mould  does  not  grow  in  the  sunshine  and  corruption 
does  not  thrive  on  good  citizenship. 

There  is  another  reason  why  every  citizen  should 
cast  a  vote.  It  is  the  question  of  principle.  If 
a  man  believe  in  a  thing  he  should  be  courageous 
enough  to  support  his  opinion  by  deeds.  Though 
his  is  the  only  vote  cast,  let  him  give  expression 
to  his  wish  by  ballot.  He  may  be  a  pioneer  in  a 
great  movement,  or  a  feeble  voice  in  struggling 
millions.  His  ballot  may  be  a  protest  or  an  en- 
dorsement. A  great  nation  calls  and  he  should 
respond. 

That  there  is  corruption  in  politics  is  beyond 
doubt.  Everybody  knows  there  is.  This  should 
be  no  excuse,  however,  for  anyone  to  neglect  his 
duty;  to  make  it  an  excuse  is  particeps  criminis 
on  the  ground  that  refusing  to  help  a  drowning 
man  is  homicide.  When  one  suspects  corruption 
it  is  his  duty  as  a  citizen  and  as  a  man  to  cast  his 
vote  against  it,  and  to  investigate  the  rumors. 
If  necessary  he  should  take  up  the  game  of  politics 
himself.  Good  men  are  always  wanted  in  politics 
whatever  their  party  adherence. 

Citizenship  does  not  stop  with  voting.  There 
is  a  pride  in  the  country  that  every  man  should 


Government  Organization  7 

possess.  He  should  bear  in  mind  that,  as  great 
nations  go,  ours  is  the  youngest;  yet  in  spite  of 
this  fact  vitality  and  unbounded  self-reliance  are 
national  characteristics.  Within  the  memory  of 
man  our  country  was  ridiculed  all  over  Europe 
as  a  nation  of  uncultured  farmers  and  artisans 
who  possessed  a  land  with  no  future.  We  had 
no  place  in  the  conferences  of  nations.  Our  rep- 
resentatives were  scarcely  accorded  the  courtesy 
that  any  gentleman  has  a  right  to  expect.  We 
made  no  complaint,  but  went  about  to  prove  our 
mettle.  Our  people  and  our  statesmen  had 
character;  wise  laws  were  administered  by  wise 
men.     We  worked  and  prospered. 

America  emerged  from  obscurity  and  won  the 
world's  respect  and  admiration.  We  are  now 
honored  by  close  friendship  with  all  nations.  Our 
Government  is  recognized  as  one  of  conservatism, 
stability,  and  endurance,  and  when  our  represent- 
atives speak  their  voice  is  heard.  The  fact  that 
America  has  won  recognition  and  a  place  in  the 
high  esteem  of  nations  is  a  matter  of  deep  grati- 
fication and  a  source  of  pride.  This  alone  is  an 
inspiration  to  set  high  ideals  of  citizenship  and  to 
discharge  every  civic  obligation  with  sincerity, 
whether  it  be  voting  or  office-holding. 

Organization  of  our  Government. — Amer- 
ica's greatness  is  the  result  of  two  premises:  A 
sound  Constitution,  and  vast  natural  resources. 
Without  the  Constitution  natural  wealth  would 
remain   undeveloped.     Fortunately,    the    Consti- 


8        Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

tution  is  sound,  and  the  Government  based  upon 
it  is  administered  wisely  and  conservatively. 

The  Constitution  of  the  United  States  is  merely 
a  set  of  rules  to  provide  lasting  and  uniform 
methods  of  self-government.  It  guarantees  public 
and  private  rights,  and  provides  measures  for 
enforcing  them.  The  system  of  government 
briefly  outlined  in  this  plainly  worded  instrument 
is  divided  into  three  branches:  Legislative,  exec- 
utive, and  judicial.  All  rights  and  actions  may 
may  be  placed  under  these  three  heads. 

The  legislative  powers  are  vested  in  the  Con- 
gress, which  is  divided  into  two  branches,  the 
Senate  and  the  House  of  Representatives.  The 
Senate  is  often  called  the  "upper  house"  and  acts 
as  a  sort  of  conservative  balance ;  its  members  are 
rightly  supposed  to  be  removed  farther  from  the 
people  and  somewhat  out  of  reach  of  individual 
voters.  This  excellent  plan  gives  senators  a  more 
independent  attitude  upon  legislative  questions, 
which  is  highly  necessary  in  every  kind  of  govern- 
ment. Much  foolish  legislation  proposed  by 
voters  is  set  aside  by  the  Senate. 

The  House  of  Representatives,  popularly  called 
the  "lower  house,"  is  the  direct  representative 
of  the  people.  Its  members  are  usually  pledged 
to  propose  or  support  certain  lines  of  legislation 
desired  by  the  citizens  of  their  respective  districts ; 
in  the  event  they  fail  to  do  this  the  voters  can 
hold  them  responsible  at  the  polls.  It  is  this 
direct  responsibility  that  puts  every  voter  into 


Government  Organization  9 

close  touch  with  the  Government.  Representa- 
tives are  careful  to  consult  the  wishes  of  their 
constituents  and  to  incorporate  those  wishes 
into  legislation.  In  this  manner  the  will  of  the 
people  is  supreme. 

The  Senate  and  the  House  of  Representatives 
seldom  oppose  each  other.  Occasionally,  when 
one  house  is  dominated  by  one  political  party  and 
the  other  house  by  another  party,  opposition  is 
encountered.  These  conditions  are  usually  ad- 
justed by  trading  legislation,  one  branch  of 
the  Congress  surrendering  certain  legislation  in 
payment  for  similar  service  given  by  the  other 
branch. 

Sometimes  questionable  legislation  is  proposed 
by  the  House  of  Representatives  with  the  under- 
standing that  it  is  to  be  quashed  by  the  Senate. 
This  plan  permits  a  representative  to  discharge 
the  promises  made  to  his  constituents  to  introduce 
certain  legislation  and  at  the  same  time  it  prevents 
his  bill  becoming  bad  law.  The  favorite  way  of 
satisfying  constituents  and  yet  preventing  ridic- 
ulous laws  from  being  enacted  is  to  refer  all  bills 
to  a  committee ;  the  committee  confers,  and  unde- 
sirable bills  are  laid  upon  the  table  to  remain 
there.  This  is  a  perfectly  effective  method  of 
disposing  of  treacherous  subjects  and  a  bill  so 
treated  is  said  to  "die  in  committee."  A  bill 
is  studied  and  discussed  from  all  sides  by  the 
committee  before  it  is  reported  to  either  branch 
of  the  Congress;  upon  being  reported  a  day  is 


io       Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

set  for  its  discussion,  when  the  public  begins  to 
hear  something  of  it. 

A  bill,  with  all  amendments,  must  be  passed  by 
both  houses  of  the  Congress  and  signed  by  the 
President  before  it  becomes  a  law.  Scores  of  bills, 
many  of  them  of  the  most  impracticable  and 
fantastic  nature  imaginable,  die  in  committee. 
Should  every  bill  proposed  by  constituents  be 
passed  our  national  laws  would  be  a  farce. 

Considerable  criticism  has  been  directed  at 
congressional  methods,  but  in  justification  it  must 
be  borne  in  mind  that  a  legislator's  business  is  to 
make  laws  that  will  stand  the  test  of  the  courts. 
Unconstitutional  law  is  a  mockery,  and  frequently 
the  cause  of  financial  loss.  The  Congress  repre- 
sents the  people  and  is  obliged,  in  the  public 
interests,  to  safeguard  the  rights  and  promote  the 
happiness  of  the  people  as  a  body  and  not  to  pass 
class  legislation. 

The  judiciary  embraces  the  various  courts. 
It  is  this  branch  of  the  Government  that  passes 
upon  the  constitutionality  of  the  laws  that  the 
Congress  enacts. 

The  enforcement  of  the  laws  is  provided  for  by 
the  Constitution  in  these  words :  ' '  The  executive 
power  shall  be  vested  in  a  President  of  the  United 
States  of  America."  A  more  sweeping  authority 
could  scarcely  be  given.  It  puts  the  well-being 
of  a  nation  into  the  hands  of  one  man  and  makes 
it  of  vital  importance  that  the  nation's  selection 
of  that  man  shall  be  a  wise  one.     As  commander- 


Government  Organization  n 

in-chief  of  the  army  and  the  navy,  the  President 
has  the  physical  power  to  enforce  laws.  The  army 
and  navy  are  seldom  needed  in  the  enforcement 
of  other  than  international  rights.  The  execution 
of  the  laws  is  delegated  to  a  vast  army  of  civil 
officers  and  subordinates,  acting  in  harmony  under 
one  head. 

That  the  enforcement  of  the  laws  may  be  con- 
ducted with  intelligence  the  executive  branch  of 
our  Government  is  divided  into  nine  departments, 
ranking  as  follows:  Department  of  State,  Treas- 
ury Department,  War  Department,  Department 
of  Justice,  Post-Office  Department,  Navy  Depart- 
ment, Department  of  the  Interior,  Department  of 
Argriculture,  and  Department  of  Commerce  and 
Labor.  Each  department  has  charge,  in  a  gen- 
eral way,  of  the  particular  business  indicated  by 
its  name  and  is  under  the  direction  of  a  secretary. 
These  nine  secretaries  of  departments,  called 
ministers  in  some  countries,  form  what  is  known 
as  the  President's  Cabinet  and  it  is  through  them 
that  the  President  acquaints  himself  with  the 
condition  and  progress    of  national  business. 

Owing  to  the  importance  of  their  posts,  the 
selection  of  capable  secretaries  is  of  the  first  con- 
cern to  a  newly-elected  president.  It  has  long 
been  the  custom,  upon  the  accession  of  a  new 
president,  for  his  predecessor's  cabinet  to  tender 
their  resignations;  the  incoming  president  may 
or  may  not  reappoint  them,  as  his  judgment  or 
policy  dictates. 


12       Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

The  nine  departments  are  divided  into  working 
groups  variously  called  "bureaus,"  "offices," 
or  "divisions,"  for  the  purpose  of  assembling 
particular  business  under  the  direction  of  men 
especially  capable  of  administering  it.  These 
bureaus  are  subdivided  into  sections  under  the 
direction  of  "chiefs  of  division."  The  chief  of 
division  has  charge  of  the  clerks  or  other  employes 
who  actually  perform  the  work;  his  position  cor- 
responds to  that  of  the  department  manager  of 
a  commercial  establishment. 

In  addition  to  the  departments  there  are  various 
commissions  and  independent  offices,  organized 
as  the  exigencies  demand  and  dissolved  when  the 
necessity  for  their  continuance  no  longer  exists. 
Such,  for  example,  are  the  Smithsonian  Institution, 
the  Civil-Service  Commission,  the  Government 
Printing  Office,  the  Isthmian  Canal  Commission, 
the  Commission  to  the  Philippine  Islands,  the 
Interstate  Commerce  Commission,  and  a  few 
lesser  ones.  The  heads  of  these  organizations 
report  direct  to  the  President. 

All  executive  business  of  the  Federal  Govern- 
ment, of  whatever  nature,  comes  under  the  head 
of  these  departments  and  independent  offices. 
The  general  manner  of  carrying  out  the  laws  is 
prescribed  by  the  Congress,  but  the  particular 
method  of  accomplishing  this  end  is  left  to  the 
President,  meaning  by  that  any  officer  or  employe- 
directly  or  indirectly  designated  by  him.  It 
would  be  impracticable  for  the  Congress  to  specify 


Government  Organization  13 

all  the  details  of  transacting  public  business, 
inasmuch  as  conditions  are  always  changing. 

The  Government  is  often  spoken  of  as  being 
divided  into  "establishments"  instead  of  depart- 
ments. There  are  three  so-called  establishments — 
the  civil,  the  military,  and  the  naval.  The  civil 
establishment  comprises  all  manner  of  civil  em- 
ployes from  the  lowest  to  the  highest,  whether 
serving  in  the  United  States,  its  insular  posses- 
sions, or  in  foreign  countries.  The  military  es- 
tablishment comprises  officers  and  enlisted  men 
of  the  army,  and  the  naval  establishment  cor- 
responding members  of  the  navy.  This  division 
into  establishments  is  one  merely  of  convenience 
and  common  consent,  and  does  not  in  any  way 
alter  or  take  the  place  of  the  nine  executive 
departments. 

The  "insular  possessions"  or  islands  belong- 
ing to  the  United  States  are  under  the  full  con- 
trol of  this  Government  through  governors  and 
commissions  appointed  by  the  President,  but 
have  their  own  governments  suited  to  local  con- 
ditions. It  is  the  policy  of  the  Federal  Govern- 
ment to  disseminate  the  true  principles  of  our 
republic  among  the  natives  of  the  new  acquisi- 
tions, and  so  ultimately  fit  them  for  citizenship 
and  a  full  participation  in  the  central  Govern- 
ment. Remarkable  progress  has  been  made 
toward  this  laudable  end. 

The  administrative  or  executive  branch  of  the 
Government  embraces  by  far  the  greatest  number 


14      Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

of  employes,  exceeding  in  numbers  the  combined 
strength  of  all  other  branches,  and  constitutes 
the  actual  governing  body;  for  this  reason  it  is 
often  spoken  of  as  "the  Government"  or  "the 
Administration."  Its  ramifications  penetrate 
every  corner  of  our  nation,  however  remote. 
Wherever  a  few  hundred  persons  congregate, 
representatives  of  the  Federal  Government  estab- 
lish themselves  there  in  the  form  of  a  post-office, 
a  custom  station,  or  a  military  post,  all  subject 
to  the  President's  order  through  the  proper  sub- 
ordinate officers,  and  all  report  to  the  central 
government  at  Washington.  This  mammoth  fab- 
ric works  with  remarkable  harmony  of  parts,  due 
to  the  centralization  of  authority.  Should  one 
branch  of  it  be  delinquent,  the  failure  is  sure  to 
be  adjusted  within  a  reasonable  time. 

The  administration  of  the  laws  and  the  pro- 
visions of  the  Constitution  is  an  intricate  and 
weighty  problem.  It  will  be  borne  in  mind  that 
every  act  of  every  officer  and  employe  of  the 
United  States,  of  whatever  station  or  rank,  must 
be  in  accordance  with  law.  The  laborer  on  a 
Federal  building,  the  clerk  at  his  desk,  the  admiral, 
the  general,  the  cabinet  officer  are  governed  by 
certain  laws  applied  to  their  particular  needs,  and 
to  overstep  them  subjects  the  offenders  to  disci- 
pline. No  one  is  immune  from  the  governing 
hand.  Even  the  President,  with  more  actual 
power  than  a  king  or  an  emperor,  is  ruled  by  laws 
written  or  traditional,  some  of  the  latter  the  most 


Government  Organization  15 

rigid;  and  upon  him  rests  the  burden  of  ruling 
the  nation. 

In  carrying  out  the  laws,  the  President  looks 
to  his  immediate  advisers  for  his  chief  support 
and  to  the  Congress  for  laws  to  suit  the  need  of 
the  times.  When,  in  the  course  of  administra- 
tion, it  appears  that  new  laws  should  be  made 
relating  to  particular  necessities  the  President 
lays  the  matter  before  the  Congress  in  the  form 
of  a  "message."  The  Congress  considers  the 
message,  looks  into  the  necessity  for  the  laws  sug- 
gested therein,  and  acts  accordingly.  Messages 
are  welcomed  by  the  governing  body,  inasmuch 
as  they  not  only  direct  attention  to  the  country's 
needs  but  are  an  index  to  the  execution  of  party 
policy. 

Each  of  the  nine  departments  works  within  its 
own  bounds,  devoting  its  attention  to  business 
relating  to  its  particular  line;  when  extraneous 
matters  arise  they  are  referred  to  the  department 
most  interested.  In  this  way  the  public  business 
is  equitably  distributed  and  creditably  handled. 
Obviously  it  would  be  ridiculous  for  the  Depart- 
ment of  Justice  to  undertake  the  investigation 
of  cattle  diseases,  a  work  for  which  the  scientists 
of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  are  peculiarly 
fitted ;  or,  for  the  Treasury  Department  to  answer 
questions  relating  to  the  seniority  of  army  officers. 
The  principle  followed  in  administering  the  laws 
is  "a  place  for  everything  and  everything  in  its 
place." 


1 6      Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

There  frequently  arise  responsibilities  of  such  a 
nature  that  the  officer  in  charge  does  not  feel 
qualified  to  carry  them  out  single-handed.  The 
practice  in  such  cases  is  to  appoint  a  board  of 
three  or  more  members  to  take  up  the  questions, 
acting  upon  the  idea  that  "two  heads  are  better 
than  one."  Government  by  board  has  two 
marked  advantages  to  commend  it :  A  view  of  the 
subject  by  several  individuals,  and  an  opportunity 
for  each  member  to  hold  the  others  in  check. 
Among  the  disadvantages  may  be  mentioned  the 
distribution  of  authority  and  its  consequent 
weakening,  a  condition  that  permits  members 
to  delay  the  public  business.  There  is  also  some- 
times a  tendency  to  disagree,  resulting  in  the 
board  submitting  a  report  with  a  dissenting  voice 
and  so  detracting  from  the  value  of  its  findings. 
Transacting  public  business  by  board  does  not 
differ  in  essential  elements  from  a  similar  system 
of  conducting  private  business.  The  board  system 
is  now  deeply  rooted  in  the  government  admin- 
istration, and  gets  its  authority  from  both  law 
and  precedent. 

It  is  remarkable  what  distorted  notions  people 
have  concerning  a  Federal  department.  The  pub- 
lic is  lamentably  uninformed  upon  the  simplest 
Government  organization  and  procedure, by  "pub- 
lic" meaning  the  average  citizen.  This  is  not 
due  perhaps  so  much  to  a  lack  of  interest  in 
national  affairs  as  to  a  disinclination  to  take  the 
trouble  of  learning  or  a  feeling  that  such  know- 


Government  Organization  17 

ledge  is  not  sufficiently  important  to  pay  for  the 
time  spent  on  it  when  the  call  of  money  is  more 
insistent.  It  will  be  noted,  in  this  connection, 
that  men  of  wide  interests  recognized  as  builders 
of  industry  not  only  devote  considerable  attention 
to  Federal  policies  but  often  are  familiar  with  ad- 
ministrative details — a  suggestion  for  the  average 
man  to  note  well. 

The  only  department  that  seems  to  be  well- 
known  is  the  Post-Office  Department,  due  to  the 
fact  that  everybody  posting  a  letter  is  brought 
into  direct  relations  with  that  branch  of  the 
national  organization.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
every  department  is  scattered  widely  over  the 
country,  the  departments  at  Washington  being 
merely  head  offices  just  as  a  railroad  maintains 
head  offices  in  some  important  city  and  has  nu- 
merous stations  distributed  over  its  system.  As 
a  simple  proposition  the  departments  at  Wash- 
ington contain  but  few  employes  compared  with 
the  number  stationed  at  various  points  through- 
out the  country  and  abroad. 

Occupations. — The  popular  conception  of 
duties  in  a  Federal  position  is  one  of  fantastic 
distortion.  It  is  not  unusual  to  read  in  a  news- 
paper that  "Mr.  J.  W.  Blank,  of  this  city,  has 
just  received  notice  that  he  has  been  appointed 
to  a  responsible  and  lucrative  position  in  Washing- 
ton"; a  few  days  later  follows  the  inevitable 
announcement  that  "Mr.  J.  W.  Blank  left  last 
night  for  Washington,  where  he  has  accepted  a 


1 8       Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

responsible  and  lucrative  position  with  the  Govern- 
ment." The  following  summer  this  notice  appears 
in  the  newspaper:  "Mr.  J.  W.  Blank,  late  of 
this  city  but  now  a  Government  official  at  Wash- 
ington, is  spending  his  vacation  at  home,"  etc. 
It  may  be  that  J.  W.  Blank  is  an  "official"  whose 
duties  consist  in  answering  call  bells,  or  he  may  be 
the  head  of  a  big  office  employing  hundreds  of 
men  and  women ;  in  either  event  the  public  knows 
him  as  a  "Government  official"  holding  a  respon- 
sible and  lucrative  position. 

To  specify  the  various  positions  under  the  Fed- 
eral Government  with  even  a  slight  description  of 
each  would  be  to  fill  volumes ;  the  Census  reports1 
give  the  titles  of  over  fourteen  hundred  positions. 
Government  positions  vary  as  widely  in  scope  and 
responsibility  as  those  in  private  life,  ranging 
from  the  post  filled  by  the  President  to  the  job 
of  charwoman,  from  senator  to  office-boy,  and 
scientific  expert  to  wood-chopper.  The  duties  of 
the  positions,  both  in  and  out  of  the  classified  ser- 
vice, are  indicated  in  a  general  way  by  their  titles 
and  the  manner  of  carrying  them  out  is  prescribed 
in  all  cases  by  the  supervising  officer.  For  in- 
stance, a  collector  of  internal  revenue  is  responsi- 
ble for  the  collection  of  taxes  imposed  by  the 
Government  upon  certain  commodities  produced 
by  private  interests  within  the  United  States. 
The  manner  of  making  these  collections  is  pre- 
scribed by  law  and  Treasury  Department  regula- 

i  Census  Bulletin,  No.  12,  1903. 


Government  Organization  19 

tions  as  administered  by  the  President  through 
the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury. 

The  same  general  principle  applies  throughout 
the  Federal  service.  The  Government,  through  its 
officers  and  employes,  must  keep  in  touch  with 
every  grade  of  employment  and  every  station  of 
life  involving  its  citizens.  Inability  to  feel  the 
nation's  pulse  would  mean  stagnation,  which 
could  only  result  in  collapse. 

The  methods  of  handling  public  affairs  change 
with  conditions  but  the  principles  that  underlie 
them  are  comparable  with  those  that  form  the 
basis  of  private  enterprise,  except  that  greater  at- 
tention is  given  to  technicalities.  Certain  policies 
are  adopted  because  the  public  exigencies  require 
them;  the  actual  methods  of  carrying  out  those 
policies  are  left  to  administrative  officers.  For 
example,  the  Congress  passed  the  Isthmian  canal 
bill  stating  in  a  general  way  that  a  canal  should  be 
built,  its  type  and  at  what  cost.  The  burden  of 
putting  this  law  into  effect  fell  upon  the  Presi- 
dent. He  took  counsel  of  his  advisers,  appointed 
a  body  of  experts  to  supervise  the  work  of  con- 
struction and  empowered  them  to  employ  capable 
men  in  the  multitudinous  positions  arising.  Such 
an  enterprise  covers  all  grades  of  work  found  in 
the  railroad  and  shipping  business,  and  requires 
the  services  of  persons  qualified  as  lawyers,  diplo- 
mats, financiers,  and  business  supervisors  as  well 
as  a  wide  variety  of  agents  and  inspectors.  The 
establishment    of   the   Philippine  Government  is 


20      Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

another  example  of  an  unforseen  contingency 
requiring  many  employes  of  all  kinds  to  carry 
the  work  into  execution. 

The  new  positions  arising  through  the  changing 
needs  of  the  Government  are  not  all  under  the  pro- 
tection of  the  civil-service  laws  and  regulations. 
Many  of  them  are  temporary;  but  the  greater 
part  are  of  a  permanent  nature  and  are  ultimately 
brought  under  the  so-called  "Civil  Service "  by  the 
President.  When  it  is  found  desirable  for  the 
public  good  to  remove  certain  positions  from 
political  influences  the  President  issues  what  is 
called  an  "executive  order,"  providing  that  these 
positions  shall  be  subject  to  the  rules  of  the  merit 
system. 

Government  positions  are  divided  into  two 
general  classes:  Elective  and  appointive.  Elec- 
tive positions  are  those  of  the  president,  the  vice- 
president,  senators,  and  representatives ;  all  others 
are  appointive.  Elective  positions  are  filled  by 
ballot;  appointive  positions  are  filled  either  by 
personal  choice  or  by  examination.  When  filled 
by  personal  choice  such  a  wide  variety  of  rea- 
sons, as  friendship,  social  prominence,  capability, 
special  fitness  and  political  obligation  govern, 
that  no  rule  will  fit  two  cases ;  but  when  a  position 
is  filled  through  examination  the  candidate  must 
prove  his  fitness. 

Civil  positions  in  the  executive  departments  are 
either  classified  or  unclassified.  A  "classified 
position"  is  one  governed  by  the  civil  -  service 


Government  Organization  21 

laws  and  regulations;  an  "unclassified  position" 
is  not  so  governed. 

Entry  to  classified  positions  is  usually  accom- 
plished   through    examination,    though    certain 
positions  may  be  filled  without  examination,  in 
which  case  a  position  is  said  to  be  "excepted," 
meaning  that  the  person  appointed  to  the  position 
is  excepted  from  examination  in  the  discretion 
of  the  nominating  officer.     Most  of  the  positions 
carrying    confidential     relations,     administrative 
capability,  and  certain  special  qualifications  are  in 
the  excepted  class ;  they  are  dispensed  at  the  will 
of  the  executive  officer  and,  viewed  from  a  subor- 
dinate aspect,  comprise  many  well-paying  places. 
Unclassified  positions  (note  the  distinction  from 
"excepted"   positions)    comprise   those   of   mere 
laborer  and  positions  filled  by  presidential  appoint- 
ment   subject    to    confirmation    by   the    Senate; 
they  are  in  no  way  governed  by  the  civil-service 
laws,    both    appointment    and    severance    being 
independent  of  the  rules  and  regulations  govern- 
ing classified  places.     The  inclination  is  to  put 
every  place  possible  into  the  classified  service,  the 
reason  being  that  better  work  can  be  done  by 
employes    who   are   removed    from   political    in- 
fluences. 


CHAPTER  II 

GOVERNMENT    BUSINESS    METHODS 

THOSE  who  have  never  had  business  relations 
with  the  National  Government  have  little 
idea  of  the  infinite  exactness  observed  in  the 
transaction  of  every  detail.  Business  has  its 
short-cuts.  Manufacturing  establishments  have 
systems  suited  to  their  needs,  railroads  follow 
a  certain  line  of  procedure  in  conducting  their 
vast  affairs,  banks  perform  their  business  in  well- 
defined  channels,  and  mercantile  houses  of  all 
kinds  pursue  their  respective  efforts  according 
to  the  best  methods  that  experts  and  experience 
have  evolved. 

All  private  business  establishments  have  a 
single  eye  to  one  thing  and  only  one  thing :  Profits. 
Any  system  that  will  reduce  expenses  and  still 
preserve  the  elements  of  safety  is  eagerly  intro- 
duced. Short  methods,  rapid  work,  and  economy 
are  characteristic  of  business  enterprise.  The 
energies  of  everybody  from  the  proprietor  to  the 
office-boy,  and  everything  from  the  capital  stock 
to  the  scratch-pad,  are  devoted  to  the  accumu- 
lation of  money.  Details  are  sacrificed  so  far  as 
possible  and  not  a  stroke  of   unnecessary  work 


Government  Business  Methods      23 

is  performed.  Sentiment  has  no  place  in  business 
and  common  honesty  is  sometimes  lost  sight  of  in 
the  pursuit  of  wealth. 

The  Government  does  its  business  on  a  different 
basis.  Government  methods  have  long  been  the 
subject  of  merriment  among  business  men.  The 
sedate,  slow-going  Government  appears  to  be 
antiquated  from  the  viewpoint  of  a  progressive 
commercial  man  or  even  an  ambitious  clerk  in 
the  business  office.  The  delay  experienced  in 
almost  every  public  transaction  is  a  cause  for 
sarcastic  or  humorous  comment,  and  not  in- 
frequently disgust,  by  those  who  attempt  to 
realize  profits  from  the  Government.  Many  busi- 
ness men  shrink  from  dealings  with  the  Federal 
administration  owing  to  the  endless  and  seemingly 
unreasonable  details  required;  yet  nearly  all 
growing  concerns  wish  to  sell  their  products  to  the 
Government  for  the  prestige  that  Federal  patron- 
age carries,  if  nothing  more. 

A  man  used  to  the  clash  of  the  commercial 
world  experiences  a  novel  and  well-remembered 
sensation  the  first  time  he  undertakes  to  transact 
business  with  the  Federal  Government.  He  early 
learns  that  Government  inspection  of  the  products 
he  has  on  sale  is  more  rigid  than  he  had  expected 
and  more  exacting  than  that  required  in  commer- 
cial life,  the  inspection  extending  to  the  minutest 
details.  This  is  a  matter  for  some  concern,  for 
time  spent  in  making  or  in  selling  an  article  means 
higher  cost.     Having  decided  that  he  can  furnish 


24      Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

the  articles  the  Government  wants,  he  quotes  his 
prices  in  the  usual  off-hand  business  manner.  A 
few  days  later  he  is  surprised  to  receive  a  set  of 
proposal  blanks  and  a  circular  letter  telling  him 
just  what  to  do  in  order  to  submit  his  prices  in  a 
legal  form.  He  wonders  why  his  letter  of  quota- 
tion does  not  answer  the  purpose ;  but  he  complies 
with  instructions  and  fills  out  the  papers  sent 
him. 

Assuming  that  he  has  secured  the  order,  he  is 
required  to  execute  an  indemnity  bond  for  the 
faithful  performance  of  his  contract.  Then  he  is 
called  upon  to  furnish  the  articles  as  the  Govern- 
ment desires.  Having  filled  the  order  he  promptly 
renders  the  usual  statement,  only  to  have  it 
ignored.  The  Government  deliberately  inspects 
and  checks  the  articles  and,  if  satisfactory,  the 
bill  is  passed  for  auditing.  After  awaiting  his 
turn  in  the  drawing  of  checks  by  the  disbursing 
officer  the  contractor  receives  payment,  in  most 
cases  long  after  settlement  would  have  been  made 
by  a  business  establishment.  At  every  step  of  the 
procedure  he  curses  the  "Government  red  tape" 
and  vows  that  he  will  never  attempt  to  do  business 
with  Government  bureaus  a  second  time.  It  is 
probably  the  case,  however,  that  he  has  made  a 
snug  profit  and  the  next  time  the  Government  is 
in  the  market  for  anything  in  his  line  he  again 
competes.  He  may  even  develop  a  hunger  for 
public  contracts  and  find  himself  growing  rich 
from  them. 


Government  Business  Methods      25 

The  business  man's  complaint  about  "red  tape  " 
is  well  founded.  Every  business  transaction 
that  the  Government  undertakes  is  encompassed 
by  details  and  technicalities.  The  brisk,  snappy 
methods  of  the  commercial  world  are  entirely 
lacking,  in  many  cases  antiquated  and  ridiculous 
requirements  being  imposed.  The  very  expression 
"red  tape"  comes  from  the  practice,  followed 
not  alone  by  the  United  States  Government  but  by 
many  foreign  states,  of  tying  official  papers  with 
a  light  strong  kind  of  tape  red  in  color.  Small 
dealings  are  as  liable  to  the  rule  of  technicality 
as  large  ones.  Yet  for  all  this  there  is  a  reason. 
The  reason  may  be  briefly  stated  in  two  words: 
law,  precedent. 

In  looking  for  the  cause  of  red  tape  it  will  be 
remembered  that  every  office-holder  must  act 
within  the  law  and  that  there  are  laws,  or  regula- 
tions framed  under  laws,  governing  all  procedure ; 
to  violate  these  regulations  subjects  the  offender 
to  discipline  and  vitiates  his  acts.  The  techni- 
calities laid  around  the  awarding  of  contracts  are 
there  for  the  purpose  of  preventing  both  mistakes 
and  frauds,  of  which  the  Government  is  remarka- 
bly free  considering  the  vast  ramifications  of  its 
business  interests.  Were  the  awarding  of  con- 
tracts not  protected  by  technicalities  the  way 
would  be  open  for  a  large  amount  of  fraud.  The 
multiplicity  of  details,  necessitating  perusal  by 
numerous  persons,  prevents  collusion ;  and  when- 
ever frauds  are  uncovered  it  invariably  follows 


26       Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

that  the  business  was  left  in  the  hands  of  too  few 
persons. 

The  principle  of  passing  business  through  the 
hands  of  several  individuals  is  the  basis  of  civic 
honesty  to  a  certain  extent.  A  man  is  not  likely 
to  steal  when  he  knows  that  others  checking  his 
work  may  discover  his  peculations;  nor  will  he 
exercise  less  care  in  doing  his  part  well,  knowing 
that  mistakes  are  charged  against  his  efficiency 
record. 

Business  is  facilitated  and  expedited  in  private 
concerns  by  the  chief  executive  officer,  who  is 
usually  authorized  to  act  for  the  company  in  mat- 
ters both  of  policy  and  procedure.  His  hand  is 
free  and  his  word  is  law  with  his  company.  When 
he  thinks  the  company  should  buy  certain  com- 
modities he  orders  it  done  and  his  subordinates 
obey.  Upon  presentation  of  the  bills  they  are 
paid  as  a  part  of  the  office  routine  and  the  pro- 
ceeding is  closed.  Successful  business  depends 
upon  a  shrewd  and  vigorous  one-man  power. 

Conditions  under  the  Government  are  the  re- 
verse. It  follows,  therefore,  that  the  manner 
of  doing  business  must  be  the  reverse.  Instead 
of  one-man  power,  it  is  no-man  power.  The 
individual  is  not  a  factor.  It  is  simply  "the 
Government."  Able  business  men  occupy  import- 
ant posts  under  the  Government  and  in  many  cases 
are  also  engaged  in  successful  private  business  dur- 
ing their  terms  of  office.  In  their  private  activi- 
ties they  are  representative  men  of  business  with 


Government  Business  Methods      27 

all  that  the  word  means — alert,  energetic,  shrewd ; 
they  employ  all  the  short-cuts  and  the  best 
systems.  Yet  in  conducting  the  Government's 
business  these  men  adopt  the  technicalities, 
delays,  and  red  tape  characteristic  of  Federal 
methods.  They  cannot  do  otherwise  under  the  law. 

The  purchase  of  everything  from  a  lead  pencil 
to  a  battle-ship  must  have  congressional  approval, 
or  the  individuals  passing  upon  the  expenditures 
will  be  held  liable.  That  this  object  may  be 
attained  and  the  Congress  have  a  working  plan, 
the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  compiles  an  annual 
estimate  of  expenditures  based  upon  reports  sent 
to  him  by  the  various  offices  and  departments. 
He  includes  in  this  general  estimate  all  kinds 
of  supplies,  salary  accounts,  building  repairs  and 
construction,  post-office  maintenance,  army  and 
navy  subsistence,  and  miscellaneous  and  contin- 
gent expenses. 

The  estimate  is  submitted  to  the  Congress, 
where  it  is  carefully  considered  item  by  item,  and 
a  bill,  embodying  it  in  whole  or  in  part  or  with 
additions,  is  passed,  thus  providing  for  carrying  on 
the  public  business  for  another  year.  The  bill 
as  passed  by  the  Congress  authorizes  the  various 
expenditures  to  be  made  by  the  offices  or  depart- 
ments named  and  only  for  the  purposes  cited. 
Passage  of  the  bill  makes  it  an  act,  and  the  act 
becomes  a  law  when  signed  by  the  President.  The 
Presidents  puts  the  law  into  effect,  which  means 
that  the  various  branches  of  the  Government  may 


28       Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

assume  financial  obligations  only  as  provided  by 
the  law. 

Should  a  bill  be  passed  providing  for  certain 
work,  but  by  an  oversight  the  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury  is  not  authorized  to  pay  out  the  funds 
for  carrying  on  the  work,  the  legislation  is  of  no 
effect.  If  the  work  be  of  very  great  moment  the 
President  will  call  an  extra  session  of  the  Congress 
for  the  express  purpose  of  correcting  the  fault. 
For  example :  If  the  Congress  failed  to  pass  what 
are  known  as  the  "Legislative,  Executive  and 
Judicial  Appropriation  Bill"  and  the  "Sundry 
Civil  Bill"  it  would  necessitate  the  President 
calling  an  urgent  extra  session  for  this  purpose; 
otherwise,  the  Government  would  disintegrate 
on  June  30th,  the  end  of  the  fiscal  year,  for  lack 
of  funds. 

The  congressional  acts  providing  funds  for 
carrying  on  the  public  business  surround  the 
authorized  expenditures  with  two  essential  con- 
ditions which  must  be  complied  with  before  the 
money  can  be  appropriated  from  the  United 
States  Treasury:  They  must  be  expended  for  the 
purpose  and  within  the  time  specified.  In  com- 
plying with  these  provisions  the  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury  supports  his  action  by  receipts  and, 
unlike  a  business  house,  operates  no  credit  system; 
the  Government  borrows  but  rarely  lends. 

Disbursing  officers,  whether  in  Washington  or 
in  the  remotest  parts  of  the  country,  are  required 
to  submit  proof  that  the  funds  have  actually  been 


Government  Business  Methods       29 

expended,  the  proof  consisting  of  returned  checks 
or  receipts  signed  by  the  parties  receiving  the 
money.  Their  accounts  are  audited  by  a  large 
corps  of  experts,  who  satisfy  themselves  that  the 
debts  have  been  legally  incurred  and  the  receipts 
therefor  properly  executed;  if  fiscal  officers  fail 
in  this  they  are  held  liable,  all  being  adequately 
bonded.  It  requires  time  and  detail  to  accom- 
plish this  checking  and  cross-checking.  Upon 
finding  the  accounts  correct,  the  amounts  are 
charged  against  their  respective  appropriations. 

It  will  be  seen  from  this  that  the  Federal  dis- 
bursing systems  are  somewhat  different  from 
those  used  by  private  companies,  due  to  the 
safety  checks  provided  by  law. 

The  correspondence  carried  on  by  the  Govern- 
ment is  also  subject  to  more  care  and  given  more 
thought  than  letters  written  in  private  business. 
Business  men  say  that  official  correspondence  is 
"cold-blooded."  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the 
Government  is  not  in  the  money-making  business 
and  has  no  occasion  to  cajole  or  to  be  effusive. 
All  Government  should  represent  stability  and 
accuracy.  It  therefore  follows  that  slovenly- 
written  and  poorly-composed  letters  should  not 
be  sent  out  from  the  department  offices;  such 
correspondence  carries  no  recommendation  and 
inspires  no  confidence.  It  is  the  aim  of  executive 
officers  to  write  letters  that  carry  weight  wher- 
ever they  go,  and  in  doing  this  it  is  particularly 
necessary  that  they  adhere  closely  to  the  strictest 


30      Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

rules  of  courtesy  and  under  no  circumstances 
make  statements  that  will  in  any  way  embarrass 
the  policy  of  the  Administration.  The  making 
of  promises  of  doubtful  fulfilment  subjects  the 
writer  to  summary  discipline. 

It  was  at  one  time  the  practice  to  resort  to 
ambiguities  in  correspondence.  This  is  no  longer 
encouraged,  the  present  inclination  being  a  strong 
one  to  plain,  clear  language;  polite  lying  under 
the  name  of  diplomacy  is  not  countenanced. 
Evasions  are  not  viewed  with  favor,  though  it  is 
not  infrequently  necessary  to  conceal  the  Govern- 
ment's actions  and  at  the  same  time  satisfy  a 
correspondent.  To  do  this  without  misrepre- 
sentation is  a  valuable  accomplishment.  The 
official  correspondent  has  to  keep  in  mind  the 
fact  that  the  public  regards  what  he  says  and  does 
as  official  whether  he  wishes  it  to  appear  so  or 
not.  Owing  to  the  proneness  of  misquotation  and 
misinterpretation  it  is  necessary  that  he  speak 
guardedly  at  all  times  and  highly  so  that  he  put 
nothing  on  paper  that  could  possibly  bring  criti- 
cism upon  the  Federal  service. 

Letter-writing  may  be  carried  to  excess.  The 
dispatching  of  lengthy  communications  about 
trivialities  shows  lack  of  discernment  and  poor 
judgment.  This  habit,  at  times,  shows  signs  of 
engrafting  itself  upon  various  departmental  offices; 
but  it  no  sooner  gets  a  fair  hold  than  a  superior 
officer  puts  an  end  to  the  practice  by  an  office 
order. 


Government  Business  Methods      31 

All  bureau  correspondence,  except  that  of  a 
merely  routine  nature,  passes  through  the  hands 
of  at  least  two  officers  or  executive  clerks,  each 
of  whom  is  held  responsible  for  its  import  by  affix- 
ing his  initials  as  a  check.  In  many  cases  the  officer 
signing  correspondence  scarcely  glances  at  the 
contents  of  letters  owing  to  the  pressure  of  busi- 
ness, depending  entirely  upon  his  subordinates  for 
their  accuracy  and  reliability.  His  confidence  is 
seldom  misplaced.  ' 

The  practice  of  forwarding  letters  through 
superior  officers  up  the  line  and  transmitting  the 
replies  in  the  same  manner,  thus  leading  to  numer- 
ous delays,  has  been  subjected  to  much  criticism 
and  ridicule.  This  system  may  be  better  under- 
stood when  it  is  realized  that  every  officer  is 
responsible  for  his  subordinates  in  the  way  that 
an  agent  is  responsible  to  his  principal.  In 
completing  an  official  record  or  closing  an  official 
act  it  is  necessary  to  have  it  approved  by  the 
officer  in  charge ;  it  is  also  important  that  the  head 
of  the  bureau  or  department  should  know  what 
his  subordinates  are  doing.  And  on  the  other 
hand,  few  subordinates  care  to  assume  sole  respon- 
sibility for  official  acts,  preferring  a  fair  division 
with  their  superiors. 

When  a  letter  starting  trouble  emanates  from 
an  office  not  only  is  the  person  who  signed  the 
letter  held  responsible,  but  every  one  through 
whose  hands  it  has  passed  for  checking.  This 
multiple  responsibility  makes  all  concerned  more 


$2       Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

careful  and  causes  letter-writing  to  revert  to  the 
no-man  principle.  Correspondence  of  a  merely- 
routine  nature,  not  involving  the  office  policy  or 
inviting  discussion,  may  as  a  general  rule  be  con- 
ducted direct  without  passing  through  the  hands 
of  superiors.  This  practice  is  becoming  more  ex- 
tended. 

The  former  practice  of  tabling  correspondence 
and  delaying  replies  until  attention  is  absolutely 
necessary  has  been  supplanted  by  modern  methods. 
Most  departmental  officers  give  prompt  attention 
to  all  letters,  many  disposing  of  every  piece  of 
mail  before  leaving  the  office  for  the  day ;  if  letters 
cannot  be  answered  definitely  at  once,  correspond- 
ents are  so  informed,  or  if  referred  to  other  offices 
a  note  is  sent  out  to  that  effect.  This  is  in  line 
with  the  latest  business  methods.  In  fact,  there 
is  a  decided  drift  toward  adopting  the  most  ap- 
proved business  methods  throughout  the  Govern- 
ment departments  so  far  as  they  are  applicable 
to  public  requirements  and  permissible  under  the 
law. 

New  methods  of  bookkeeping,  riling  records,  and 
caring  for  office  papers  are  welcomed  and  inves- 
tigated. Card-index  and  loose-leaf  systems  are 
fast  taking  the  place  of  the  old  clumsy  book 
systems.  Subject-indexing  and  carbon-systems 
are  used  wherever  practicable.  Whatever  system 
is  used  the  practice  is  in  all  cases  to  carry  it  out 
consistently,  tried  systems  being  preferred  to  the 
untried. 


Government  Business  Methods      33 

A  popular  notion  is  widely  current  that  there 
is  no  such  thing  as  hard  work  in  the  Federal  de- 
partments and  that,  in  comparison  with  service 
under  the  private  business  establishment,  Govern- 
ment work  is  mere  child's  play.  So  far  as  actual, 
real,  strenuous  work  is  concerned  the  Govern- 
ment neither  offers  nor  permits  immunity.  While 
it  is  unquestionably  true  that  there  are  individ- 
ual cases  of  easy  places  on  the  Federal  pay-roll, 
the  Federal  office  as  a  rule  presents  as  much  well- 
directed  energy  as  does  the  business  office.  Condi- 
tions in  government  offices,  however,  are  different 
from  those  in  private  establishments.  The  nervous 
haste,  blunt  manners,  and  slang  of  the  business 
world  have  no  place  in  the  departments.  Public 
men  make  it  a  point  to  be  courteous  and  require 
the  same  qualifications  in  subordinates.  Bluster- 
ing and  storming  are  particularly  frowned  upon. 

It  is  the  dignity,  soon  acquired  by  the  appointee 
to  a  Federal  post,  that  gives  the  impression  of  ease. 
Work  there  is  and  plenty  of  it,  from  the  mechanic 
to  the  head  of  the  nation.  The  administrative 
officer,  the  clerk,  the  scientist,  the  lawyer,  the 
legislator,  and  the  laborer  all  have  a  part  to  per- 
form and  they  must  perform  it  well  or  resign. 
Negligence,  carelessness,  loose  methods,  and  lax 
discipline  have  no  more  place  in  a  government 
office  than  in  a  business  office  and,  while  tolerated 
somewhat  longer,  the  result  is  loss  of  position. 
The  sooner  the  public  at  large  understands  this 
the  better. 


34       Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

It  is  doubtful  whether  any  line  of  business  of 
corresponding  grade  can  produce  better  results, 
in  quantity  and  quality,  than  that  rendered  by 
postal  employes,  particularly  railway  mail  clerks 
who  have  the  element  of  personal  danger  thrown 
in  for  good  measure.  The  census  office,  the 
pension  office,  the  patent  office,  and  the  auditors' 
offices  employ  thousands  of  clerks  whose  work  is 
as  tedious,  trying,  and  age-producing  as  can  be 
found  in  a  similar  line  of  work  anywhere.  The 
printers  and  compositors  at  the  Government 
Printing  Office  find  their  work  no  easier  than  in 
private  life.  The  laborers  and  mechanics  in  the 
navy  yards  and  gunshops  turn  out  as  much  work 
as  is  produced  in  the  private  shop.  Men  in  the 
immigration,  customs,  and  internal  revenue  ser- 
vices are,  in  many  instances,  greatly  overworked 
both  physically  and  mentally. 

The  relation  between  the  Government  and  its 
employes  is  not,  in  principle,  different  from  that 
existing  between  the  employer  and  employes  in 
private  life  in  so  far  as  efficiency  is  concerned. 
It  is  a  contract  and  each  party  thereto  must  carry 
out  his  agreement,  which  in  this  case  means  good 
honest  service. 

It  is  ridiculous  to  suppose  that  the  business  of 
a  great  nation  can  be  administered  by  haphazard 
methods  and  lazy  employes.  Small,  unprogres- 
sive  States  may  get  along  for  a  while  by  sup- 
porting an  idle  class  of  office-holders,  depending 
upon  able  men  in  private  life  to  carry  on  affairs; 


Government  Business  Methods      35 

but  a  strong  government  can  hope  to  remain 
strong  only  by  weeding  out  dead  material.  Tales 
and  traditions  of  government  idlers  have  come 
down  from  the  early  days  of  our  nation's  career, 
but  the  sleeping  period  has  been  passed  in  Amer- 
ica's history.  The  Government  is  not  administered 
with  a  view  of  getting  the  uttermost  effort  from 
employes,  but  it  does  expect  and  does  get  an 
honest  day's  work. 

In  contrast  with  this  idea  of  inattention  to 
public  business  is  that  peculiar  one  of  prestige. 
Every  large  Federal  office  has  frequent  application 
made  to  it,  directly  or  indirectly,  for  endorse- 
ment of  some  article  vended  by  business  houses. 
The  fact  that  the  Government  uses  such-and-such 
an  article  is  carefully  set  forth  in  the  pur- 
veyor's literature  as  a  trade-getter  and  read  by 
prospective  purchasers.  So  implicitly  do  peo- 
ple trust  the  Government  that  many  times  pur- 
chases are  made  on  no  other  recommendation 
than  that  the  article  is  "  used  by  the  U.  S.  Gov- 
ernment." 

This  plan  of  securing  trade  is  eagerly  adopted  by 
newly-organized  companies,  particularly  venders 
of  patented  novelties,  office  equipment,  secret 
formulae,  and  new  inventions.  Administrative 
officers  must  be  constantly  alert  and  have  to 
exercise  considerable  caution  to  prevent  inadver- 
tantly recommending  purchased  articles.  There 
are  business  establishments  that  go  so  far  as  to 
offer  consignments  of  their  products  to  the  Govern- 


36      Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

ment  free  of  cost  in  the  hope  of  getting  an  opinion 
of  their  worth.  Executive  officers  are  not  per- 
mitted to  give  recommendations  as  to  the  worth 
of  vended  articles;  should  it  be  done  in  one  case 
it  would  apply  to  all  inasmuch  as  favoritism 
would  mean  trouble,  and  the  practice  would 
entail  endless  misunderstandings. 

In  this  connection  attention  should  be  invited 
to  the  publishing  of  Government  business  by 
newspapers,  magazines,  and  other  periodicals. 
The  work  of  many  bureaus  is  the  subject  of  suc- 
cessful "write-ups"  by  newspaper  reporters, 
particularly  when  the  work  appears  to  have  a 
direct  bearing  upon  a  large  body  of  the  people. 
On  the  other  hand,  there  are  bureaus  whose  work 
is  all  but  unknown  to  the  public,  because  it  does 
not  appear  to  affect  the  country's  interest  from  a 
popular  viewpoint. 

Federal  business  in  this  respect  is  like  private 
business:  the  demand  for  publicity  is  sometimes 
heeded,  and  at  other  times  it  is  ignored.  There 
are  conditions  when  the  public's  interests  are 
best  conserved  by  secrecy,  and  when  the  Govern- 
ment finds  secrecy  advisable  orders  are  given  to 
that  effect.  There  are  occasions  when  the  prema- 
ture announcement  of  the  Government's  busi- 
ness would  precipitate  unpleasant  complications. 
Again,  the  newspaper  reporters  and  correspond- 
ents are  often  cognizant  of  Federal  proceedings  of 
the  highest  popular  interest,  but  are  in  honor 
bound  to  silence  until  the  Government  "releases" 


Government  Business  Methods      37 

the  details.  The  trust  that  officials  place  in 
newspaper  representatives  is  seldom  misplaced, 
a  fact  that  speaks  exceedingly  well  of  newspaper 
ethics. 


CHAPTER  III 

THE    MERIT    SYSTEM 

EFFICIENCY  is  a  cardinal  necessity  in  every 
branch  of  successful  endeavor.  The  com- 
mercial world  recognizes  this.  No  business  man 
can  hope  to  prosper  by  conducting  his  business 
on  incompetency,  whether  on  the  part  of  his 
employes  or  in  his  methods  of  transacting  busi- 
ness. Efficiency  is  the  foundation  upon  which  good 
administration  rests  and  is  the  soul  of  the  civil 
service,  or  more  properly  speaking,  the  merit 
system  of  the  American  Government. 

History  of  the  System.— The  system  of 
administering  affairs  according  to  the  civil-service 
laws  is  not  well  understood  outside  of  Govern- 
ment circles.  Some  Federal  officers  even  are  not 
as  familiar  with  the  rules  and  regulations  of  the 
system  as  they  might  be.  Lack  of  concise  in- 
formation has  led  to  considerable  criticism  and 
misunderstanding. 

Prior  to  1883  our  Government  was  administered 
under  what  is  known  as  the  "spoils  system,"  so 
called  from  Andrew  Jackson's  celebrated  remark: 
"To  the  victor  belong  the  spoils."  That  system 
was  based  upon  the  reasonable  assumption  that 

38 


The  Merit  System  39 

the  worker  is  entitled  to  a  share  of  the  profits  in 
proportion  to  the  value  of  his  services,  the  pay 
being  Federal  offices.  Accordingly  a  petty  poli- 
tician could  demand  appointment  to  a  Federal 
post  for  which  he  might  be  entirely  unqualified, 
in  view  of  his  services  to  the  successful  party ;  to 
oppose  him  would  be  political  suicide.  The  re- 
sult was  a  glutting  of  the  minor  positions  with 
incompetent  and  ofttimes  vicious  employes  who 
had  no  interest  in  public  affairs  beyond  sordid 
gain,  their  inefficiency  delaying  public  business 
and  demoralizing  the  efforts  of  well-meaning 
officials  to  give  good  administration.  This  fault 
was  not  so  apparent  in  the  early  days  of  the  nation's 
history,  inasmuch  as  the  demands  upon  the 
Government  were  few  and  public  business  was 
confined  to  narrow  limits. 

As  the  country  grew  the  problem  of  Federal 
administration  increased,  until  in  the  long  un- 
settled period  of  inflamed  sectional  feeling  and 
carpet-bag  rule  following  the  close  of  the  Civil 
War  it  reached  a  point  where  a  change  had  to  be 
made.  It  was  apparent  to  the  most  casual 
observer  that  the  chaotic  condition  and  irrespon- 
sibility of  subordinates  was  detrimental  to  the 
public  interests.  Administrative  officers  also  be- 
came tired  of  the  unceasing  and  ever  increasing 
importunities  for  Federal  patronage,  as  well  as 
disgusted  with  the  many  human  derelicts  and 
incompetents  foisted  upon  them.  So  in  1883  the 
Congress  passed  what  is  known  as  the  Civil  Service 


40       Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

Act,  which  provides,  in  brief,  for  the  filling  of 
subordinate  positions  in  the  executive  civil  service 
through  efficiency  considerations. 

Immediately  upon  the  establishment  of  the  new- 
system  an  emphatic  protest  arose  in  all  parts  of 
the  country.  The  petty  politicians  claimed  an 
interference  with  their  rights,  while  the  general 
public  was  divided  between  skepticism  as  to  the 
practicability  of  such  a  system  and  a  suspicion 
that  it  was  only  a  scheme  to  satisfy  their  clamor 
for  better  administration. 

The  step  was  an  experimental  one;  but  the 
law  had  scarcely  been  placed  upon  the  statute 
books,  when  its  good  effects  began  to  be  realized. 
Demagogues  could  no  longer  demand  of  executive 
officers  places  for  their  henchmen,  but  were  told 
that  it  would  be  necessary  for  their  proteges  to 
submit  to  competitive  examinations.  This  acted 
as  a  severe  blow,  for  the  political  small-fry  threat- 
ened to  rebel  if  they  were  not  rewarded  by  Federal 
patronage  regardless  of  competency.  Talk  of 
repeal  at  once  became  rife.  Civil-service  became 
an  issue  at  the  polls  and  the  political  leaders  of 
both  great  parties,  foreseeing  the  drift  of  public 
sentiment,  promptly  incorporated  a  civil-service 
plank  in  their  national  platforms. 

It  was  soon  realized  that,  whatever  differences 
of  opinion  existed  in  regard  to  other  national 
policies,  voters  were  almost  a  unit  for  better  civil 
administration;  and,  almost  before  anyone  sus- 
pected the  force  of  the  movement,  the  merit  sys- 


The  Merit  System  41 

tern  of  making  appointments  to  Federal  positions 
became  a  fixture.  No  one  appreciated  the  great 
step  more  than  party  leaders,  and  succeeding 
presidents,  without  regard  to  politics,  availed 
themselves  of  their  prerogatives  under  the  law 
and  extended  the  system  to  branch  after  branch 
of  the  executive  service. 

To-day  the  merit  system  is  beyond  the  experi- 
mental stage;  it  is  a  pronounced  success.  Small 
politicians  no  longer  think  of  demanding  patronage 
without  efficiency,  but  are  content  either  with  a 
money  consideration  for  their  work  or,  more 
generally,  with  the  "good  of  the  party"  which  in 
the  end,  after  a  period  of  training  and  education, 
fits  them  for  office.  The  merit  system  in  this 
manner  is  more  far-reaching  than  its  projectors 
anticipated  and  has  become  a  factor  in  training 
ambitious  small  politicians  to  better  ideas  of 
civic  duties  as  well  as  providing  capable  officers 
and  employes  for  carrying  out  the  Government's 
administrative  policies.  Elective  officials  have 
also  been  relieved  of  the  obligations  put  upon 
them  to  dole  out  clerical  and  other  minor  executive 
positions  as  spoil  due  their  followers ;  they  are  now 
placed  in  the  more  independent  and  respectable 
attitude  of  being  able  to  tell  place-seekers  to  sub- 
mit to  a  civil-service  examination  as  a  test  of 
fitness,  a  condition  that  relieves  them  of  many 
annoyances  consuming  much  time  which  can  be 
put  to  better  public  use. 

It  will  not    be    understood  that  the  removal 


42       Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

of  the  subordinate  executive  places  from  po- 
itical  influence  has  resulted  in  depriving  the 
people  of  the  rights  of  self-government.  On  the 
contrary,  it  has  provided  opportunity  for  thou- 
sands of  citizens  who  do  not  possess  the  qualifi- 
cations of  the  successful  politician  but  whose 
high  ideals  and  special  fitness  make  them  desirable 
public  servants ;  to  these  the  way  is  open  to  modest 
careers  in  the  Federal  service.  Whereas,  prior 
to  the  adoption  of  the  civil-service  law  the  national 
administration  was  regarded  as  spoil,  and  con- 
sequently remained  in  the  hands  of  professional 
politicians,  sixty  percent,  of  it  is  now  absolutely 
removed  from  political  influence  and  so  brought 
nearer  the  people. 

A  merit  system  of  making  appointments  in  the 
National  Government  is  not  peculiar  to  the  United 
States.  Nearly  all  countries  operate  some  kind 
of  a  merit  system,  varying  as  widely  in  practi- 
cability as  the  countries  themselves,  and  suited 
to  national  needs  and  characteristics.  The  laws 
of  certain  countries  make  it  all  but  impossible  for 
the  average  person  to  secure  an  honorable  place 
in  the  civil  service,  imposing  requirements  as  to 
property  ownership,  family  descent,  or  social 
position,  while  in  other  countries  the  laws  are  as 
liberal  as  in  America.  Military  and  naval  service 
is  quite  generally  recognized  as  a  cause  of  pre- 
ferment, other  conditions  being  equal. 

Extent. — The  merit  system  as  operated  in  the 
United  States  by  no  means  includes  all  positions 


The  Merit  System  43 

outside  of  the  elective  offices.  As  a  matter  of 
fact,  it  covers  only  a  comparatively  few  high 
public  offices.  Such  places  as  are  filled  by  chiefs 
of  bureaus,  assistant  secretaries,  members  of 
commissions,  postmasters  above  the  fourth  class, 
revenue  collectors,  various  fiscal  officers,  diplo- 
mats, Federal  judges,  United  States  marshals, 
and  a  large  body  of  officers  having  supervisory 
duties  and  directly  representing  the  execution  of 
party  policy  are  not  now  and  never  will  be  brought 
into  the  so-called  civil-service  system.  To  bring 
such  positions  under  the  civil-service  regulations 
would  be  either  to  obliterate  political  parties  or 
make  it  impossible  to  carry  out  party  policy, 
which  would  reduce  our  Government  to  one  of 
bureaucracy.  Any  tendency  to  take  away  party 
prerogative  should  be  viewed  with  distrust. 

Party  administration  represents  the  people's 
will  as  indicated  at  the  polls,  and  to  give  free 
expresssion  to  the  policies  endorsed  by  the  ma- 
jority vote  it  is  necessary  that  the  executive  offices 
remain  open  for  the  incoming  President  to  dispose 
of  according  to  his  party's  and  the  country's  best 
interests.  It  is  a  President's  duty  to  the  people 
to  carry  out  his  party's  pre-election  promises,  a 
practice  that  is  universally  recognized  and  closely 
followed;  in  the  event  his  administration  is  not 
satisfactory  to  the  people,  their  recourse  is  to  be 
had  at  the  polls.  Therefore,  in  filling  the  high 
executive  offices,  which  is  usually  done  upon 
consultation  with  party  leaders,  the  question  is 


44      Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

not  one  of  a  division  of  spoils  but  one  of  national 
welfare.  Indeed,  the  President  frequently  ex- 
periences considerable  difficulty  in  rilling  those 
offices  and  many  appointees  accept  at  a  personal 
financial  loss. 

It  must  not  be  inferred  from  this  that  office- 
seeking  has  passed.  In  the  true  meaning  of  the 
word  "office,"  place-seeking  is  as  conspicuous  as 
ever ;  but  the  disgraceful  scramble  for  subordinate 
positions,  once  doled  out  under  the  spoils  system, 
has  been  eliminated.  An  "officer"  or  "official" 
represents  something  much  different  from  an 
"employe,"  though  both  are  said  to  be  office- 
holders. Those  familiar  with  Government  ad- 
ministration understand  by  the  word  "officer" 
or  its  synonym  "official"  anyone  in  executive 
authority,  while  "employes"  fill  the  thousands 
of  positions  necessary  for  carrying  on  public 
business. 

Position-seeking  is  done  through  the  Civil 
Service  Commission,  while  "office-seeking"  is 
done  by  application  to  the  President.  The  number 
of  office-seekers  increases  at  every  election,  and 
when  a  political  party  has  triumphed  over  one 
that  has  been  in  power  for  several  consecutive 
administrations  there  is  a  tidal  wave  of  office- 
seekers  looking  for  appointment.  In  late  years 
there  has  been  a  tendency  to  ignore  the  claims  of 
mere  political  service  in  making  appointments 
to  high  executive  posts,  special  requirements  to 
suit    individual    cases    being    demanded.     It    is 


The  Merit  System  45 

probable  that  the  future  will  see  this  tendency 
emphasized  rather  than  diminished,  inasmuch  as 
it  appears  to  meet  the  people's  favor  and  to  suit 
national  conditions.  Presidential  appointees  are 
held  to  stricter  account  than  formerly,  a  policy  in 
administration  that  has  produced  excellent  results 
throughout  the  whole  executive  service. 

The  merit  system  covers  all  positions  in  the 
executive  departments  and  independent  establish- 
ments, as  a  general  rule,  of  a  clerical,  sub-clerical, 
mechanical,  technical,  and  sub-executive  char- 
acter. There  are  about  350,000  positions  in  the 
whole  civil  service,  of  which  nearly  two  thirds  are 
in  the  classified  service.  Of  the  latter,  one  half 
are  under  the  Post-Office  Department;  the  rest 
are  scattered  throughout  the  other  eight  depart- 
ments and  independent  offices.  The  number  of 
positions  filled  by  competitive  examination  is 
increasing  every  year,  both  by  natural  growth 
and  extension  of  the  competitive  system. 

As  showing  the  extent  of  the  classified  service, 
popularly  known  as  '  'the  civil  service,"  a  glance  at 
the  following  figures  will  be  of  interest : 

Clerical  positions 66  per  cent. 

Professional,  technical  and  scientific 5  per  cent. 

Executive 1  per  cent. 

Mechanical 5  per  cent. 

Sub-clerical  and  laborers 20  per  cent. 

Miscellaneous 3  per  cent. 

There  is  an  inclination,  fostered  by  experience, 


46      Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

to  cover  all  kinds  of  subordinate  positions  by  the 
civil-service  rules.  Several  of  our  presidents 
have  been  criticised  for  having  extended  the 
competitive  system  too  freely,  but  time  has 
proved  the  wisdom  of  their  action.  So  firmly 
is  the  merit  idea  now  fixed  in  our  Government 
that  the  competitive  method  of  making  appoint- 
ments to  all  positions  but  those  of  strictly  ad- 
ministrative character  is  promptly  extended  to 
new  services  provided  by  congressional  legislation. 

The  merit  system  is  now  so  nicely  balanced  that 
examinations  are  required  of  laborers,  tests  of 
fitness  in  such  cases  being  confined  to  personal 
character,  physical  strength,  and  experience.  In 
fact,  experience  is  coming  more  and  more  to  be 
regarded  as  the  chief  factor  in  the  merit  system, 
the  Government  profiting  at  the  expense  of  com- 
mercial establishments. 

One  of  the  early  criticisms  aimed  at  the  civil 
service  was  the  danger  of  a  favored  class  becoming 
fixed  upon  the  country,  similar  to  the  ruling  classes 
under  monarchies.  The  favored  class  idea  was 
given  up  when  it  became  known  that  the  sons  and 
daughters  of  Government  employes  were  com- 
pelled to  submit  to  the  same  conditions  in  seeking 
Federal  posts  as  those  who  had  no  relatives  in  the 
public  service.  The  fear  of  nepotism  was  en- 
tirely abandoned  when,  within  a  year  from  the 
promulgation  of  the  law,  it  was  definitely  settled 
that  not  more  than  two  members  of  a  family 
should  hold  office  at  the  same  time. 


The  Merit  System  47 

The  Civil  Service  Commission. — The  merit 
system  of  making  appointments,  as  provided  by 
the  Civil  Service  Act  of  1883  and  the  rules  pro- 
mulgated thereunder,  is  in  the  direct  control  of  the 
Civil  Service  Commission,  an  organization  also 
created  by  the  said  act.  The  Commission  is 
composed  of  three  members  appointed  by  the 
President,  one  of  whom  must  be  of  a  different 
political  party  from  the  other  two.  Its  work 
relates  to  examining  and  certifying  applicants 
for  executive  positions,  and  instituting  suitable 
action  in  cases  of  alleged  violation  of  the  statute 
governing  the  executive  civil  service.  In  order 
to  carry  on  this  work  the  Congress  passes  an  annual 
appropriation  bill,  providing  the  necessary  funds 
to  put  the  law  into  execution,  as  is  done  in  all 
other  branches  of  the  Government  service ;  without 
this  annual  appropriation  it  would  be  manifestly 
impossible  to  continue  the  Commission's  work; 
and  nearly  every  year  some  Congressman,  either 
in  a  spirit  of  zeal  or  jest,  or  perhaps  as  a  concession 
to  some  of  the  old-fashioned  politicians  of  his  home 
district,  opposes  the  appropriation  bill.  As  the 
work  of  the  Commission  increases  the  Congress 
provides  more  funds  to  cover  the  greater  demands. 

The  work  of  the  Civil  Service  Commission  is 
highly  systematized,  as  it  must  necessarily  be 
when  it  is  realized  that  upward  of  125,000  persons 
are  examined  yearly,  embracing  applicants  from 
every  grade  of  society,  all  creeds,  colors,  and 
conditions.     In  conducting  this  vast  work  it  is 


48       Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

important  to  devote  personal  attention  to  every 
candidate,  however  great  or  insignificant  he  may- 
be. Fairness  and  uniform  justice  must  be  ob- 
served. The  examination  papers  must  be  rated 
and  the  applicants  given  a  relative  standing. 
Registers  of  eligibles  must  be  kept,  so  that  a 
properly  qualified  person  may  be  furnished  to  any 
branch  of  the  executive  service  at  a  moment's 
notice.  Thus  it  may  happen  that  simultaneous 
calls  reach  the  Commission  in  Washington  for  a 
stenographer  in  the  customs  service  at  San  Fran- 
cisco, a  machinist  in  the  Norfolk  navy  yard,  an 
expert  chemist,  a  patent  examiner,  and  a  messenger 
at  Washington,  a  draftsman  at  Boston,  an  inter- 
preter at  the  Ellis  Island  immigration  station, 
and  postal  clerks  at  ten  different  post-offices 
scattered  over  the  country.  The  Commission 
must  be  able,  without  delay,  to  certify  the  persons 
eligible  for  the  various  positions  without  a  mis- 
take or  a  doubt  as  to  their  fitness. 

This  activity  merely  covers  one  division  of  the 
Commission's  work ;  in  addition,  tens  of  thousands 
of  requests  for  printed  matter  and  blank  forms 
are  acted  upon  yearly,  thousands  of  inquiries  are 
answered  by  mail,  eligibles  removed  from  the 
registers  at  the  expiration  of  a  year  from  entry 
thereon,  investigations  of  fraud  and  political 
activity  conducted,  and  questions  of  authority 
decided. 

As  an  aid  in  the  accomplishment  of  its  work  the 
Commission  has  divided  the  country  into  civil- 


The  Merit  System  49 

service  districts,  each  in  charge  of  a  local  secretary. 
These  districts  cover  in  a  general  way  the  sub- 
treasury,  custodian,  customs,  mint  and  assay, 
post-office,  and  internal-revenue  services;  infor- 
mation in  regard  to  any  of  these  services  may  be 
secured  by  addressing  the  local  secretary  at  dis- 
trict headquarters.  There  are  twelve  of  these 
districts  with  headquarters  as  follows:  Boston, 
New  York,  Philadelphia,  Washington,  Atlanta, 
Cincinnati,  Chicago,  St.  Paul,  St.  Louis,  New 
Orleans,  Denver,  and  San  Francisco.  The  secre- 
tary conducts  the  examinations  and  keeps  a 
register  of  eligibles  for  his  district,  and  is  respon- 
sible to  the  Commission  at  Washington  for  con- 
ditions under  his  jurisdiction. 

The  civil-service  districts  are  thoroughly  or- 
ganized by  the  appointment  of  local  examining 
boards  in  the  smaller  towns  and  cities  within  their 
respective  domain.  These  local  boards,  about 
1700  in  number,  have  charge  of  the  examinations 
for  positions  filled  in  their  own  place  and  report 
to  the  district  headquarters.  The  members  of 
local  boards  are,  in  practically  all  cases,  employed 
in  other  governmental  capacities ;  so  that  the  work 
done  as  members  of  the  civil-service  boards  is  but 
a  part  of  their  official  duties.  Thus  it  will  be 
seen  that,  by  distributing  the  work  among  a  large 
number  of  Federal  employes,  the  Civil  Service 
Commission  is  able  to  accomplish  its  mammoth 
work. 

Classification.- — In  accordance  with  the  civil- 


50       Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

service  law  two  grand  divisions  have  been  made 
of  executive  positions — classified  and  unclassified. 

The  classified  service  embraces  all  positions  in 
the  executive  civil  service  of  however  widely 
divergent  character,  except  those  of  mere  laborer 
and  persons  whose  appointments  are  subject  to 
confirmation  by  the  Senate.  It  is  the  classified 
service,  and  that  only,  which  is  popularly  known 
as  the  "civil  service."  For  example,  the  clerks 
in  a  post-office  are  said  to  be  "in  the  civil  service" 
and  the  postmaster  "not  in  the  civil  service." 
The  truth  is,  both  the  postmaster  and  his  clerks 
are  in  the  civil  service ;  but  the  postmaster,  being 
appointed  for  a  definite  period  and  his  appoint- 
ment being  subject  to  confirmation  by  the  United 
States  Senate,  is  in  the  unclassified  service,  while 
the  clerks  in  his  office  are  appointed  through 
examination  and  are  in  the  classified  service,  and 
therefore  protected  by  the  law  of  1883  and  the 
rules  framed  thereunder. 

The  term  "classified  service"  arose  from  the 
manner  of  dividing  the  various  positions  into 
groups  according  to  salary.  According  to  the 
classification  adopted  by  the  heads  of  departments 
and  independent  offices,  the  personnel  has  been 
grouped  as  follows: 

General  Classification. 

Class  A.     Persons  whose  compensation  is  less  than 
$720  a  year. 
B.     $720  or  more,  but  less  than  $840. 


The  Merit  System 


51 


Class  C.  $840  or  more,  but  less  than  $900. 

D.  $900  or  more,  but  less  than  $1000. 

E.  $1000  or  more,  but  less  than  $1200. 

1.  $1200  or  more,  but  less  than  $1400. 

2.  $1400  or  more,  but  less  than  $1600. 

3.  $1600  or  more,  but  less  than  $1800. 

4.  $1800  or  more,  but  less  than  $2000. 

5.  $2000  or  more,  but  less  than  $2500. 

6.  $2500  or  more. 

The  Railway  Mail  Service. 

Class   1.  $800  and  $900  a  year. 

2.  $1000. 

3.  $1100. 

4.  $1200  and  $1300. 

5.  $1400  and  $1500. 

6.  $1600. 

Clerks  and  Carriers  in  Post-Offices  of  the  First  and 
Second  Class. 


Class 


$600  a  year. 

$800. 

$900. 

$1000. 

$1100. 

$1200. 


The  classification  according  to  salary  does  not 
indicate  the  kind  of  position  occupied,  inasmuch 
as  persons  are  sometimes  assigned  to  lower  grades 
of  work  from  registers  of  high  grades. 

Thus,  an  attendant  in  a  marine  hospital  is 
supposed  to  perform  work  of  a  more  or  less  menial 


52       Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

nature,  such  as  sweeping,  washing  windows,  run- 
ning errands,  waiting  on  the  table,  or  nursing  sick 
sailors ;  yet  college  graduates,  practicing  physicians, 
and  men  of  fine  education,  training,  and  experience 
are  not  infrequently  appointed  to  the  position 
of  attendant,  where  their  special  attainments  are 
utilized  advantageously  and  their  salaries  are  in 
proportion  thereto. 

Subordinates  sometimes  receive  higher  pay 
than  those  who  supervise  their  work.  This  is 
principally  due  to  specialized  work  in  which  few 
persons  are  found  proficient.  It  will  be  readily 
seen  that  persons  competent  to  fill  the  lower 
administrative  positions  are  more  numerous  than 
the  experts  in  a  specialty  who  have  given  years 
of  their  lives  to  mastering  the  details  of  their 
chosen  vocations.  A  steel  engraver,  for  example, 
who  has  brought  the  best  energies  of  his  life  into 
such  technical  work,  might  reasonably  receive 
more  pay  than  the  chief  of  a  division  who  pos- 
sesses but  little  more  than  average  administrative 
ability.  Yet,  according  to  practice,  the  chief 
of  division  will  rank  the  engraver  and  will  look 
to  him  for  results. 

There  is  a  regulation  of  the  Civil  Service  Com- 
mission that  prohibits  employes  from  doing  a 
higher  grade  of  work  than  their  examination 
covered,  and  this  provision  is  rigidly  enforced. 
It  frequently  is  the  case,  however,  that  persons 
of  the  same  grade  or  rank  are  subjected  to  dif- 
ferent  kinds   of   examinations,    depending   upon 


The  Merit  System  53 

the  nature  of  the  work  required  of  them.  This  is 
particularly  true  of  positions  paid  from  what  is 
known  as  a  "lump  sum."  They  are  then  ranked 
in  their  grade  according  to  their  pay  and  are  also 
classified  according  to  their  pay.  It  will  be 
noticed  from  this  that  persons  of  the  same  grade 
may  be  classified  differently,  even  standing 
higher  in  the  classification  than  some  outrank- 
ing them.  The  classification,  therefore,  has  no 
reference  to  rank  but  to  the  compensation  received, 
disbursing  officers  and  statisticians  grouping 
salaries  without  respect  to  rank. 

The  classified  service  is  divided  into  sections 
often  referred  to  as  the  Departmental,  Internal 
Revenue,  Indian,  Government  Printing,  Railway 
Mail,  Custom-House,  and  Post-Office  services. 
Various  regulations,  suitable  for  the  individual 
service,  are  in  force. 

The  positions  in  the  classified  service  are  grouped, 
for  convenience,  into  six  divisions  as  follows: 
Clerical,  technical,  executive,  mechanical,  sub- 
clerical,  and  miscellaneous.  The  dividing  line 
between  these  groups  is  not  as  distinct  as  might 
be  wished,  two  or  three  sometimes  merging.  A 
high-grade  clerk,  for  instance,  may  act  as  chief 
of  division  in  the  absence  of  that  executive,  or  a 
man  may  be  a  scientific  investigator  and  a  chief 
of  division  at  the  same  time ;  or,  a  skilled  mechanic 
may  be  required  to  possess  administrative 
capacity.  Senior  clerks  are  generally  required 
to  possess    some   executive    ability,    as   the    na- 


54      Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

ture  of  their  work  often  demands  supervisional 
duties. 

Positions  in  the  classified  service  are  more 
clearly  defined  than  those  in  other  branches  of 
Government  service,  and  incumbents  are  required 
to  confine  their  work  closely  within  the  limits  of 
their  official  position  as  called  for  in  their  appoint- 
ment. 

Apportionment.- — The  Civil  Service  Commis- 
sion, in  accordance  with  law,  is  obliged  in  filling 
positions  in  the  departments  at  Washington  to  ap- 
portion the  places  among  the  various  States  and 
Territories  so  far  as  possible.  In  the  case  of  sub- 
treasuries,  customs  offices,  the  life-saving  service, 
internal-revenue  offices,  mints  and  assay  offices, 
post-offices,  the  custodian  service,  navy  yards, 
arsenals,  the  quartermaster's  department  at  large, 
and  similar  branches,  it  is  customary  to  draw  upon 
the  neighboring  States  when  filling  civil-service 
positions.  This  is  due  chiefly  to  one  of  two  causes : 
either  the  pay  is  too  small  to  make  it  worth  accept- 
ance by  an  appointee  living  at  a  distance,  or  the 
work  is  of  such  a  nature  as  to  make  it  unfair  to  in- 
troduce strangers.  Obviously  it  would  be  unreason- 
able to  appoint  a  laborer  residing  in  California  to  a 
position  in  Washington  paying  but  $1.25  a  day; 
or  to  offer  a  position  as  surfman  in  the  life-saving 
service  to  a  man  on  the  Nebraska  plains  who  had 
never  seen  the  ocean ;  it  would  be  unfair  to  appoint 
mail  carriers  in  New  York  from  Tennessee  or 
North  Dakota. 


The  Merit  System  55 

It  is  sometimes  the  case  that  certain  parts  of 
our  large  country  enjoy  greater  prosperity  than 
other  portions,  and  it  is  always  difficult  to  secure 
eligibles  in  those  sections.  The  highly  technical 
nature  of  many  of  the  classified  positions  at 
Washington  also  militates  against  an  equal  ap- 
portionment. Manufacturing  States  maintain 
technical  colleges  and  attract  technical  men;  so 
when  such  experts  are  required  by  the  Govern- 
ment, the  Civil  Service  Commission  is  obliged 
to  apportion  them  in  accordance  with  their  legal 
residence. 

Another  cause  for  unequal  apportionment  is 
a  lack  of  eligibles  in  those  parts  of  the  country 
that  are  identified  with  the  minority  political 
party.  There  appears  to  be  an  idea  quite  general 
in  the  public  mind  that  applicants  for  civil-service 
positions  belonging  to  a  political  party  different 
from  that  in  power  at  Washington,  do  not  have 
as  good  a  chance  of  securing  appointment  as  do 
members  of  the  dominant  party;  hence  they  do 
not  present  themselves  for  examination.  This  is 
an  entirely  erroneous  and  harmful  idea.  It  is 
neither  in  accordance  with  the  wishes  of  the  Civil 
Service  Commission  nor  the  spirit  of  the  law. 
The  very  essence  of  the  law  is  to  guarantee  an 
equal  chance  for  securing  civil  positions  regardless 
of  the  applicant's  political  or  religious  views. 
Republicans,  Democrats,  and  members  of  minor 
political  parties  are  on  a  common  level  before 
the  Civil  Service  Commission;  indeed,  applicants 


5 6        Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

are  cautioned  by  the  Commission  to  refrain  from 
giving  any  kind  of  a  hint  as  to  their  political 
preferences,  and  a  violation  of  this  warning  is 
sufficient  to  disqualify  them. 

The  idea  that  politics  still  has  much  to  do  with 
securing  minor  positions,  in  spite  of  the  plain  law 
to  the  contrary,  has  had  such  a  strong  hold  upon 
the  South  during  recent  years  that  the  Southern 
States,  Virginia  prominently  excepted,  are  in 
arrears  in  the  number  of  appointments  to  which 
they  are  entitled.  Should  the  Washington  Gov- 
ernment fall  into  the  hands  of  the  Democratic 
party,  as  it  will  do  some  time,  there  is  no  doubt 
that  a  strong  influx  of  Southern  applicants  for 
civil-service  places,  with  a  corresponding  decrease 
in  Republican  States,  would  be  the  result. 

Let  it  be  understood,  clearly  and  unequivocally, 
that  politics  does  not  enter  into  the  eligibility  of  any 
applicant  examined  by  the  Civil  Service  Commission. 
This  statement  is  inflexible  and  without  reservation 
or  exception. 

Another  cause  that  contributes  to  the  South 's 
low  percentage  in  apportionment  is  the  large 
negro  population  and  a  consequent  high  rate  of 
illiteracy.  As  illiteracy  practically  eliminates  the 
negro  as  a  factor  in  civil-service  appointments  it 
naturally  follows  that  the  white  population  must 
furnish  proportionately  more  candidates  than  they 
otherwise  would  to  maintain  their  apportion- 
ment. This  is  not  done;  and  unfortunately  so, 
because  Southerners  occupying  Federal  posts  have 


The  Merit  System  57 

proved  particularly  efficient  and  faithful.  As 
conditions  exist  at  present  the  opportunities  for 
Southern  young  men  in  filling  careers  under  the 
Federal  Government  are  exceptional.  Their 
chances  for  appointment  are  unusually  good, 
owing  to  the  large  number  of  positions  due  them 
under  the  apportionment. 

Several  of  the  States  have  far  exceeded  their 
quota.  Chief  of  these  are  Virginia,  Maryland, 
and  the  District  of  Columbia.  This  condition  is 
due  to  the  fact  that  there  is  a  large  number  of 
positions  at  Washington  of  which  the  salary  is  so 
low  that  it  would  be  unreasonable  to  expect 
persons  at  a  distance  to  incur  the  expense  which 
the  acceptance  of  such  appointments  would 
involve.  Many  of  the  positions  also  are  tempor- 
ary and  are  filled  by  residents  of  Washington  and 
its  environs. 


CHAPTER  IV 
the  merit  system  (Continued) 

ADVERTISEMENTS  are  sometimes  seen  in  the 
newspapers  like  this:  "Will  pay  $50  to  any 
one  securing  me  a  Government  position  paying 
$900  a  year."  Similar  notices  are  inserted  by 
over-anxious  persons  in  the  hope  that  some  in- 
ducement may  be  given  appointing  officers  to 
stretch  a  point.  The  making  of  such  suggestions 
is  plain  bribe-offering,  an  offence  punishable  by  a 
heavy  penalty.  The  publishing  of  an  advertise- 
ment of  this  kind  is  done  through  ignorance,  for 
appointment  to  positions  that  are  worth  having 
is  made  after  examination  by  the  Civil  Service 
Commission  and  their  system  of  examination 
scarcely  admits  of  collusion. 

So  well  does  the  Government  regulate  the  con- 
duct of  its  servants  that  employes  are  prevented 
from  accepting  tips,  fees,  or  any  kind  of  extra 
remuneration  in  addition  to  their  salary  for  work 
performed  in  official  hours.  It  is  a  common 
occurrence  for  tourists  to  offer  tips  to  guards, 
guides,  messengers,  and  even  higher  grades  of 
employes.  The  acceptance  of  gratuities  for  the 
performance  of  official  duties  meets  with  summary 

58' 


The  Merit  System  59 

dismissal.  This  principle  pertains  to  every  kind 
of  work  done  in  Government  time,  whether  the 
amount  received  in  payment  therefor  is  five  cents 
or  five  dollars.  The  Government  acts  on  the 
theory  that  a  man's  salary  buys  his  services 
during  official  hours;  outside  of  those  hours  he 
may  do  as  he  pleases  in  regard  to  extra  work  so 
long  as  his  acts  do  not  bring  discredit  upon  him 
as  a  public  employe. 

Appointment  to  a  Government  position  after 
competitive  examination  is  not  the  end  of  effort. 
The  basis  of  the  merit  system  is  merit,  both  in 
securing  office  and  in  a  proper  performance  of 
duties  after  appointment.  Mistakes,  however,  are 
sure  to  occur  under  any  system  no  matter  how 
rigid  a  method  of  checking  is  observed.  Every- 
body and  every  organization  is  liable  to  error. 
The  Government  is  no  exception.  There  are 
mistakes  of  policy,  mistakes  of  judgment,  and 
mistakes  of  administration;  the  high  and  the  low, 
the  officer  and  the  subordinate  are  fallible.  Some- 
times the  culpable  one  is  harshly  dealt  with,  at 
other  times  his  delinquency  is  unheeded;  it  all 
depends  upon  the  nature  of  the  individual  case. 

Errors  of  judgment  are  perhaps  the  worst 
form  of  delinquency  for  the  public  employe. 
Such  mistakes  are  likely  to  lead  to  all  kinds  of 
complications  and  confusion,  and  the  person  who 
repeatedly  betrays  this  inefficiency  usually  finds 
it  best  to  resign.  Errors  due  to  haste  or  over- 
work are  usually  ignored.     A  few  officers  treat 


60      Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

mistakes  entailing  financial  losses  as  serious 
matters  and  charge  the  losses  against  the  em- 
ploye's salary.  Generally  each  mistake  carries  its 
own  lesson  and  the  office-holder  profits  accord- 
ingly. 

Efficiency. — Administrative  officers  keep  effi- 
ciency records  of  the  employes  in  their  juris- 
diction, rendering  a  monthly  report  of  the  work 
done,  punctuality,  diligence,  faithfulness,  accuracy, 
and  other  facts  bearing  upon  an  employees  effi- 
ciency. These  reports  are  filed  by  the  principal 
officers  and  afford  valuable  data  when  promotions 
are  considered. 

The  purpose  of  the  efficiency  record  is  to  pre- 
vent employes  from  falling  into  lax  habits  of  work 
and  discipline.  Just  how  far  this  surveillance 
is  beneficial  is  open  to  question.  Some  objection 
has  been  made  on  the  score  that  the  markings 
necessarily  depend  upon  the  administrative  officer's 
individual  judgment,  whereas  other  officers  would 
credit  other  markings  for  the  same  work,  that 
it  tends  toward  unmanliness  and  servility,  and 
that  it  even  may  result  in  dishonesty  by  forcing 
an  employe  to  adopt  an  attitude  of  pretence. 
Opposed  to  these  objections  it  may  be  strongly 
stated  as  a  fact  that  many  persons  enter  the  public 
service  in  the  full  belief  that  they  will  not  be 
required  to  perform  much  actual  work,  a  belief 
that  has  special  reference  to  clerical  and  sub- 
clerical  assignments.  The  efficiency  record  acts 
as  a  healthy  check  to  such  ideas  and  doubtless 


The  Merit  System  61 

develops  many  freshmen  into  excellent  employes. 
New  appointees  coming  from  commercial  offices 
are  likely  to  sneer  at  Government  methods  for  the 
first  few  months  of  their  official  life,  a  practice 
that  does  not  improve  their  efficiency  in  the  least ; 
when  employes  of  this  type  are  shown  their 
efficiency  record  they  often  protest  and  boast  of 
their  capacity.  It  is  then  that  the  beneficial 
effects  of  the  record  become  apparent. 

As  illustrating  the  high  grade  of  efficiency 
maintained  in  Federal  offices  it  is  only  necessary 
to  cite  the  single  case  of  railway  mail  clerks,  a 
hard-worked  and  moderately-paid  class  of  em- 
ployes. The  average  number  of  pieces  of  mail 
matter  distributed  by  each  clerk  is  about  i  ,500,000 
each  year.  The  errors  in  distribution  amount 
to  but  one  in  each  11,000  pieces  handled.  Com- 
ment is  not  necessary. 

Laziness,  incompetency,  and  lack  of  attention 
are  not  as  a  general  thing  tolerated  under  the 
merit  system.  On  the  other  hand  integrity, 
industry,  faithfulness  to  duty,  and  capacity  for 
performing  good  work  do  not  in  themselves  con- 
stitute a  standard  for  filling  high  positions.  These 
excellent  qualifications  fit  one  for  doing  work 
under  another's  supervision  or  attending  to  de- 
tails of  a  merely  routine  nature ;  but  they  are  not 
enough  to  qualify  one  for  filling  the  higher  posi- 
tions. Places  requiring  executive  ability  in- 
volve a  number  of  other  considerations,  such 
as    judgment,    tact,    firmness,    and    experience. 


62      Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

Whether  these  virtues  can  be  cultivated  or  not 
is  a  question  for  the  psychologist  to  solve;  there 
is  no  doubt  that  many  persons  possess  them  un- 
known to  themselves  or  to  any  one  else  and  that 
they  can  be  developed  if  opportunity  offer. 

A  person  may  be  ever  so  industrious  and  faith- 
ful and  attain  a  high  degree  of  efficiency  in  a 
subordinate  position,  and  yet  be  a  complete  and 
hopeless  failure  in  an  executive  capacity.  Then 
again,  one  may  be  utterly  inefficient  in  handling 
details,  but  possess  a  degree  of  judgment,  tact, 
and  individuality  that  will  make  him  eminently 
successful  as  an  executive  officer.  Or,  an  employe- 
may  be  uncongenially  assigned  and  become  so 
discontented  and  discouraged  that  he  is  rendered 
almost  totally  inefficient;  he  sees  his  hopes  un- 
realized and  his  ambitions  killed,  conditions  which 
are  sure  to  react  unfavorably  on  himself  and  his 
fellow  office-holders.  Executive  officers  do  not 
always  perceive  the  cause  of  dissatisfaction  in 
their  subordinates,  though  a  shrewd  chief  will  not 
be  slow  to  apply  the  best  corrective  measures  in 
his  power.  Unfortunately  these  corrective  meas- 
ures often  take  the  direction  of  the  efficiency 
record  and  consist  of  low  ratings.  So  the  effici- 
ency records  as  conducted  in  the  departments, 
it  will  be  seen,  are  elastic  and  uncertain. 

Employes  can  do  a  great  deal  to  elevate  them- 
selves if  they  go  about  it  in  the  right  way.  If  a 
place  be  found  uncongenial  or  the  work  distasteful 
the  proper  course  is  to  state  the  conditions  frankly 


The  Merit  System  63 

to  the  officer  in  charge,  who  will  usually  appreciate 
it  and  make  an  effort  to  adjust  conditions,  inas- 
much as  it  is  to  the  interest  of  every  official  to  have 
his  subordinates  cheerful  and  satisfied.  Of  course 
this  action  will  not  be  the  best  in  certain  cases. 
Chiefs  in  some  instances  will  make  the  first  move 
toward  removal  from  the  service  when  an  em- 
ploye goes  to  him  with  such  a  fair  and  frank 
confession.  Discretion  and  judgment  must  be  ex- 
ercised in  every  case,  action  depending  upon  the 
individuality  of  the  executive  officer.  Some 
chiefs  are  exceedingly  easy  to  approach  and  give 
patient  attention;  others  care  nothing  for  sug- 
gestions from  their  subordinates,  and  for  an 
employe  to  admit  lack  of  interest  to  such  an 
executive  would  be  the  signal  for  an  indignant 
outburst.  An  exhibition  of  anger  or  resentment 
toward  a  subordinate  is  a  serious  step  for  an 
official  inasmuch  as,  under  departmental  regu- 
lations, officers  and  employes  are  cautioned  to  be 
courteous  and  considerate  at  all  times. 

If  an  employe,  no  matter  how  high  or  how  low 
in  rank  in  the  merit  system,  feels  that  he  has  been 
badly  treated  he  should  lay  the  facts  before  the 
chief  of  his  bureau  or  the  secretary  of  his  depart- 
ment. This  usually  results  in  an  amicable 
adjustment.  Employes  should  be  particularly 
careful  in  charging  their  superiors  with  any  kind 
of  delinquency  and  only  do  so  with  proof  in  hand 
that  would  be  acceptable  before  a  court  of  law. 
A  mere  assertion  that  such-and-such  is  true  is 


64       Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

worthless  if  unsupported  by  evidence.  A  large 
majority  of  the  charges  brought  by  subordinates 
are  filed  as  a  result  of  personal  animosity  and  have 
no  foundation  in  fact.  Subordinates  sometimes 
imagine  that  their  chiefs  are  unnecessarily  hard 
and  exacting.  Cheerfulness  and  willingness  in 
the  performance  of  duty  will  usually  correct  any 
unpleasantness  of  that  kind.  It  is  well  to  keep 
in  mind  at  all  times  that  the  work  performed  is 
for  the  United  States  and  not  for  an  individual, 
and  that  the  relations  are  not  those  of  master  and 
servant  but  that  of  servants  in  a  common  cause. 

Government  officials,  as  a  rule,  are  very  much 
more  liberal  and  considerate  in  their  treatment 
of  subordinates  than  executives  in  similar  posi- 
tions in  commercial  life.  Cases  now  and  then 
arise,  however,  in  which  administrative  officers 
assume  too  much  authority  in  their  relations  with 
subordinates  or  act  with  the  commercial  idea  of 
getting  the  last  iota  of  work  from  the  employes 
under  their  direction.  The  average  man  will 
gladly  give  his  best  energies  if  well  treated,  but 
is  quick  to  resent  if  imposed  upon.  An  officious 
and  over-exacting  executive  is  sure  to  fail  in 
maintaining  a  high  standard  of  discipline  and 
the  efficiency  of  his  office  is  consequently  lowered. 
A  wise  chief  will  avoid  misunderstandings  and 
discontent,  a  policy  that  is  well  repaid  in  the 
quantity  and  quality  of  work  turned  out.  Should 
the  efficiency  of  any  employe  reach  such  a  low 
stage  that  he  becomes  of  little  value,  it  is  the 


The  Merit  System  65 

administrative  officer's  duty  to  file  charges  against 
him. 

Removal  from  Office.- — The  merit  system 
presents  fewer  barriers  to  removal  from  office 
than  is  popularly  supposed.  People  at  large  are 
well-nigh  a  unit  in  believing  that  appointment 
to  a  Federal  post  in  the  civil  service  is  equivalent 
to  a  life  position.  This  notion  is  well  founded 
owing  to  the  long  tenure  of  office  usually  enjoyed 
by  public  emyloyes. 

The  key  to  the  whole  civil-service  system  is 
efficiency.  Rules  are  made  and  regulations 
promulgated  with  this  sole  object  in  view.  There- 
fore when  it  appears  that  the  good  of  the  service 
demands  a  change  in  the  personnel,  no  incumbent 
is  arbitrarily  protected  by  any  rule  or  regulation. 
Life-tenure  of  office  does  not  arise  through  any 
provision  of  the  civil-service  regulations.  As  a 
matter  of  fact  it  sometimes  happens  that  public 
employes  are  legislated  out  of  office  by  the  con- 
solidation of  work  or  by  the  Congress  failing  to 
provide  for  an  appropriation.  The  civil-service 
law  does  not  assure  life-tenure  by  any  means, 
not  even  during  good  behavior,  and  provides  no 
barrier  whatever  against  removal  from  office 
except  political  causes.  Moreover,  the  Civil 
Service  Commission,  entrusted  with  the  enforce- 
ment of  the  civil-service  law,  has  no  authority  in 
removal  cases  except  when  it  is  alleged  that  the 
removal  is  sought  for  political  or  religious  reasons 
or  that  irregular  proceedings  were  had. 


66      Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

Cause  for  removal  from  a  civil-service  position 
exists  whenever  the  good  of  the  public  service 
demands  it,  and  the  "good  of  the  service"  is 
something  that  rests  entirely  in  the  judgment 
of  the  appointing  officer.  Some  one  must  be 
in  a  position  to  say  in  what  respect  the  discipline 
or  efficiency  of  an  office  warrrants  dismissal  for 
the  good  of  the  service,  and  no  one  can  better 
pass  upon  the  conduct  of  an  office  than  the  ex- 
ecutive in  charge.  The  chief  of  a  bureau  or 
head  of  an  office  is  responsible  for  results  within 
his  jurisdiction  and  it  follows  that  he  is  the  best 
judge  of  what  constitutes  cause. 

Cause  for  dismissal  is  a  matter  of  individual 
cases,  as  in  private  business.  What  is  far  from 
cause  in  one  office  may  be  a  serious  offence  in 
another.  For  example:  a  bureau  may  have 
no  rules  against  public  discussion  of  its  work; 
yet  if  one  of  its  employes  repeated  in  public 
certain  things  that  took  place  there  and  so  brought 
trouble  upon  the  bureau  it  is  readily  seen  that 
it  would  constitute  a  serious  offence  and  be 
enough  to  justify  the  administrative  head  in 
filing  charges  against  him.  Again,  an  employe 
might  intentionally  violate  the  rules  of  his  office 
and  yet  do  it  in  a  way  that  no  harm  would  come. 

Inefficiency  and  misconduct  constitute  cause 
for  removal,  but  the  offences  must  in  all  cases 
be  definite.  Broadly  speaking,  anything  that 
will  tend  to  bring  the  service  into  disrepute  is 
sufficient  cause  for  removal.     This  may  be  in- 


The  Merit  System  67 

attention  to  duty,  a  breach  of  rules,  crime,  mis- 
demeanor, or  any  kind  of  delinquency  occurring 
either  during  or  outside  of  official  hours. 

The  tendency  is  to  restrict  appointment,  not 
removal.  The  power  of  removal  is  almost  un- 
limited, and  rests  with  the  President  and  his 
representatives,  and  not  with  the  executive 
officer  in  direct  charge.  The  heads  of  depart- 
ments make  appointments  and  therefore  make 
dismissals,  usually  upon  the  recommendation  of 
the  executive  officer  in  immediate  control.  The 
President  and  heads  of  departments  may  sum- 
marily dismiss  any  one  guilty  of  misconduct 
when  the  offence  is  committed  in  their  presence; 
in  other  cases  the  practice  is  to  require  that 
charges  be  filed  by  the  officer  in  direct  control. 

The  filing  of  charges  against  any  person  holding 
office  in  the  civil  service  is  a  serious  step.  It 
matters  little  whether  the  person  sought  to  be 
removed  holds  a  high  or  a  low  position,  the 
individual  bringing  the  charge  must  be  prepared 
to  substantiate  his  allegations  by  proof  admissible 
in  a  court  of  law  and  by  no  other.  Hearsay 
evidence,  surmise,  and  presumption  are  insuf- 
ficient; for,  while  the  heads  of  departments  are 
not  required  by  law  to  take  testimony  from 
either  the  accused  or  the  complainant,  it  is  a 
matter  of  justice  widely  recognized  and  carrying 
a  heavy  burden  of  precedent  that  the  accused 
be  given  an  opportunity  to  defend  himself.  As 
in  law,  the  accused  is  presumed  to  be  innocent 


68       Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

until  proven  guilty  and  the  burden  of  proof 
rests  upon  the  complaining  party.  Failure  to 
substantiate  charges  usually  results  in  a  penalty 
being  imposed  upon  the  complainant;  the  penalty 
rests  with  the  head  of  the  department  and  may 
take  a  wide  variety  of  forms,  ranging  from  the 
gentlest  reprimand  to  removal  from  the  Federal 
service. 

If  a  supervising  officer  believes  the  removal  of 
an  employe  within  his  jurisdiction  will  promote 
the  efficiency  of  the  service  he  may  suspend  the 
employe  pending  the  filing  of  charges  and  report 
the  suspension  to  the  secretary  of  the  depart- 
ment for  approval.  Immediately  upon  suspension 
he  files  his  charges  with  the  secretary,  citing  the 
specific  offence  and  accompanying  it  by  a  re- 
commendation for  removal.  The  accused  is 
furnished  a  copy  of  the  charges  and  is  given  three 
days,  or,  in  the  case  of  post-office  clerks,  ten 
days,  in  which  to  reply  to  the  charges  counting 
from  the  time  a  copy  of  the  charges  is  officially 
delivered  to  him;  in  replying  he  may  deny  in 
toto,  demand  proof,  or  offer  explanation  or  counter- 
charges as  he  may  wish.  Upon  receipt  of  his 
reply  the  head  of  the  department,  or  officials 
acting  under  his  direction,  will  consider  both 
sides  of  the  controversy.  If  it  is  believed  worth 
while  a  rigid  inquiry  may  be  instituted  covering 
a  wide  field;  if  circumstances  do  not  appear  to 
warrant  this,  steps  commensurate  with  the  im- 
portance of  the  case  are  taken  and  the  difference 


The  Merit  System  69 

adjusted.  It  is  always  a  serious  reflection  upon 
a  supervising  officer's  executive  ability  to  fail 
in  substantiating  his  allegations  or  to  prefer 
trivial  charges. 

It  will  be  seen  from  this  that  appointment  to 
a  civil-service  position  erects  no  barrier  whatever 
against  removal  and  is  no  guarantee  of  life  tenure. 
Persons  ambitious  of  securing  Government  posts 
should  fully  understand  this  and  be  warned 
against  seeking  Federal  office  in  the  hope  that 
such  appointments  offer  a  convenient  and  easy 
means  of  securing  a  permanent  income.  Appoint- 
ment to  a  civil-service  position  creates  no  legal 
claim  upon  the  place,  and  mandamus  proceedings 
looking  to  a  reinstatement  after  dismissal  for 
cause  are  of  no  avail.  Removal  does  not,  in 
itself,  bar  one  from  future  public  employment 
except  in  the  case  of  offences  that  would  bar 
one  from  original  appointment. 

Removal  from  the  civil  service  on  account  of 
religion  or  politics  is  illegal.  It  sometimes  happens 
that  removal  is  sought  on  political  grounds, 
the  charges  citing  other  reasons.  So  when  an 
attempt  is  made  to  secure  an  employe's  dismissal 
it  is  well  for  the  accused  to  look  behind  the 
charges,  if  he  feel  that  he  has  properly  and  effi- 
ciently performed  his  duties.  If  reasonably  sure 
that  the  real  cause  is  a  political  one  he  should 
reduce  all  the  facts  to  writing  and  submit  them 
to  the  Civil  Service  Commission,  which  will  under- 
take an  investigation.     Reasonable  certainty  of 


70      Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

the  true  conditions  should  exist  before  instituting 
any  counter-charges. 

It  is  unwise  to  be  precipitate  in  riling  charges 
against  any  one.  Hasty  action  usually  indicates 
anger  and  makes  a  bad  matter  worse.  Differences 
can  generally  be  adjusted  by  tact  and  an  honest 
desire  to  remedy  them.  A  great  deal  of  provoca- 
tion should  exist  and  other  means  be  exhausted 
before  steps  are  taken  looking  to  one's  removal 
from  the  public  service;  for  it  will  be  borne  in 
mind  that,  while  centralization  of  authority 
must  prevail  in  public  as  in  private  business, 
the  principles  of  popular  government  are  not 
founded  upon  arbitrary  or  dictatorial  impulse. 
The  administrative  officer,  as  well  as  the  employe, 
should  be  slow  to  accuse  and  should  eliminate 
the  personal  equation  entirely,  keeping  constantly 
in  view  the  fact  that  the  common  welfare  demands 
harmony  in  public  affairs. 

Abuses. — It  cannot  be  denied  that  there  are 
some  abuses  in  the  merit  system  just  as  there 
are  abuses  under  any  system  of  civic  administra- 
tion, though  in  smaller  ratio.  The  abuses  that 
arise  are  generally  due  to  the  personal  element 
prevailing  over  public  duty.  The  individual  is 
inclined  to  promote  his  own  interests  rather 
than  those  of  the  public,  and  in  accepting  office 
it  is  hardly  to  be  expected  that  this  inclination 
can  be  altogether  dropped.  In  administering 
public  office  or  performing  public  work  it  is 
every  one's  plain  duty  to  labor  for  the  common 


The  Merit  System  71 

good.  This  is  not  observed  as  it  should  be  under 
the  merit  system,  though  the  regulations  pro- 
mulgated by  the  heads  of  various  departments 
call  for  it. 

It  is  not  uncommon  for  executive  officers  to 
require  more  or  less  personal  service  from  public 
employes.  This  practice  is  not  due  to  the  system 
so  much  as  to  human  nature,  and  for  this  reason 
it  is  one  almost  impossible  to  correct.  Personal 
service,  not  meaning  by  that  term  menial  service, 
is  a  recognized  custom  in  almost  every  kind  of 
business.  The  clerk  in  the  commercial  office  is 
more  than  anxious  to  perform  some  service  for 
his  immediate  superior  in  the  hope  of  gaining 
that  superior's  good  opinion  and  friendship. 
The  same  desire  to  curry  favor  penetrates  the 
Government  office,  whether  in  Washington  or 
thousands  of  miles  distant,  and  it  is  practised 
for  the  same  purpose — either  to  obtain  promotion 
or  desirable  assignments. 

This  unquenchable  desire  to  create  a  favorable 
impression  upon  superiors  is  the  root  of  many 
of  the  cliques  and  cabals  whose  machinations 
are  sometimes  published  in  the  newspapers. 

Subordinates  cannot  be  censured  for  readily 
and  willingly  complying  with  the  personal  requests 
of  superiors  when  it  is  recalled  that  an  executive 
officer  has  it  in  his  power  to  grant  or  withhold 
favors;  nor  can  it  be  wondered  at  that  they  fail 
to  report  such  evident  infractions  of  departmental 
regulations  when  it  is  further  remembered  that 


72       Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

talebearing  is  not  in  high  esteem.  Then  again, 
it  would  be  ridiculous,  to  say  the  least,  for  a 
minor  employe  to  report  his  chief's  practice  of  re- 
quiring personal  service  to  higher  administrative 
officers  who  themselves  are  sometimes  involved 
in  similar  shortcomings. 

The  material  for  speeches,  interviews,  magazine 
articles,  and  scientific  papers,  issued  as  the  per- 
sonal work  of  Government  officials,  are  sometimes 
largely  the  work  of  clerks.  It  is  rare  indeed  for  a 
stenographer  to  escape  being  asked  to  do  some 
personal  correspondence  for  his  superiors,  using 
the  Government  time  and  stationery  in  the  ex- 
ecution of  the  work.  Some  clerks  are  called 
upon  to  attend  to  various  business  transactions 
for  their  superiors,  make  social  appointments, 
and  otherwise  perform  work  solely  within  the 
province  of  a  private  secretary.  A  large  part  of 
the  scientific  articles  published  in  technical 
journals  by  Government  officers  are  typewritten, 
edited,  and  proof-read  by  Government  clerks. 
Some  officials  go  so  far  as  to  refer  to  '  'my"  clerk 
or  "my"  stenographer  in  their  personal  corre- 
spondence and  social  relations,  when  the  truth  is 
that  the  subordinate  has  not  reached  the  dignity 
of  a  private  secretary  or  confidential  clerk. 

Employes  who  perform  personal  services  natur- 
ally come  in  for  a  larger  share  of  favors  than  the 
ordinary  plodder  who  is  either  too  conscientious 
or  too  talkative  to  entrust  with  personal  matters. 
It  therefore  follows  that  they  are  not  going  to 


The  Merit  System  73 

object  to  such  private  commissions  and  have  no 
desire  to  stir  up  trouble  when  they  find  their 
own  positions  so  well  lubricated  and  their  oppor- 
tunities for  advancement  so  brightened.  It  is 
the  employe  who  is  never  asked  to  do  personal 
work  for  his  superiors  that  complains. 

Practices  of  this  kind  are  not  in  strict  accordance 
with  the  principles  of  the  merit  system;  but  it 
must  be  said,  in  justice  to  all  concerned,  that  the 
public  interests  do  not  always  suffer  under  these 
conditions.  Personal  work  done  in  Government 
offices  is  a  hard  thing  to  justify,  looked  at  from 
the  most  favorable  side.  The  practice  receives 
a  setback  at  irregular  intervals  by  departmental 
or  Presidential  order,  when  examples  are  made 
of  the  more  conspicuous  offenders.  These  spas- 
modic outbursts  of  civic  virtue  are  soon  forgotten 
in  human  nature's  demand  to  get  something  for 
nothing;  the  fences  are  gradually  thrown  down 
rail  by  rail  and  the  cattle  are  again  back  in  their 
pasture. 

Political  Activity. — Within  very  late  years 
political  activity  was  a  distinct  abuse  in  the 
Government  service,  this  activity  consisting  of 
levying  tribute  upon  Federal  employes  for  the 
maintenance  of  party  campaigns,  failure  to  pay 
making  it  quite  uncertain  for  the  delinquent 
employ6.  Owing  to  rigid  enforcement  of  the  law, 
this  practice  has  now  all  but  totally  died  out  so 
far  as  civil-service  employes  are  concerned.  Em- 
ployes can  no  longer  hope  for  promotion  because 


74      Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

of  liberal  campaign  contributions,  as  under  the 
spoils  system. 

Outside  of  Federal  buildings  employes  may  give 
any  financial  aid  they  desire;  they  may  attend 
political  meetings,  and  fulfil  all  such  civic  duties  as 
are  expected  from  good  citizens ;  but  under  no  cir- 
cumstances must  they  make  themselves  obnoxious 
or  be  pernicious  in  party  service.  All  political 
work  that  is  incompatible  with  their  official  duties 
is  denied.  President  Roosevelt  has  concisely 
covered  the  Federal  employe's  political  status  by 
stating  that 

The  man  in  the  classified  service,  while  retaining 
his  right  to  vote  as  he  pleases  and  to  express  privately 
his  opinions  on  all  political  subjects,  "should  not  take 
any  active  part  in  political  management  or  in  political 
campaigns,  for  precisely  the  same  reasons  that  a 
judge,  an  army  officer,  a  regular  soldier,  or  a  police- 
man is  debarred  from  taking  such  active  part." 

The  Attorney-General  on  November  22,  1901, 
addressed  a  letter  to  officers  and  employes  in  the 
Department  of  Justice  upon  the  subject  of  political 
activity.     He  said: 

The  spirit  of  the  civil-service  law  and  rules  renders 
it  highly  undesirable  for  Federal  officers  and  employes 
to  take  an  active  part  in  political  conventions  or  in 
the  direction  of  other  parts  of  political  machinery. 
Persons  in  the  Government  service  .  .  .  should 
not  act  as  chairman  of  political  organizations,  nor 
make  themselves  unduly  prominent  in  local  political 


The  Merit  System  75 

matters.  It  is  expected  and  required  that  all  officers 
and  employes  of  this  Department  shall  act  in  entire 
conformity  with  the  views  herein  set  forth. 

These  strictures  upon  political  activity  apply 
to  members  of  the  classified  service  only  and  have 
no  relation  to  other  executive  office-holders  so 
long  as  they  do  not  use  their  positions  to  control 
the  political  status  of  the  merit  system.  One 
might  think  that  this  is  discrimination  against  the 
classified  employe  by  taking  away  his  political 
freedom.  In  reality,  the  discrimination,  if  any, 
is  in  the  classified  employe's  favor,  for,  while  he 
is  prevented  from  becoming  a  political  agitator, 
he  is  also  protected  from  the  over-zealous  politician 
who  formerly  preyed  upon  the  Government  clerk 
for  campaign  contributions  and  political  services. 
The  plan  of  stopping  political  agitation  has  been 
of  inestimable  value  in  promoting  the  general 
efficiency  of  the  civil  service. 

Superannuation. — A  problem  that  now  con- 
fronts the  merit  system  is  that  of  inefficiency 
resulting  from  old  age.  The  civil-service  regu- 
lations provide  ample  authority  for  reductions 
in  salary  and  removal  in  any  case  of  inefficiency, 
including  that  brought  on  by  age;  but,  in  view 
of  the  manifest  injustice  involved  in  the  execution 
of  these  provisions  in  the  case  of  employes  who  have 
spent  the  best  years  of  their  life  in  Federal  service, 
they  are  practically  null.  Growing  old  in  any 
honorable  service  is,  in  itself,  a  most  excellent  and 
commendable  example,  especially  in  view  of  the 


76      Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

restless  nature  of  Americans.  Corporations  are 
coming  more  and  more  to  appreciate  the  service 
of  old  employes  and  are  providing  various  kinds 
of  pension  funds  for  retirement.  It  has  been 
found  that  the  prospect  of  retirement  at  a  reason- 
able age  proves  an  incentive  for  good  conduct 
and  attention  to  business,  and  that  the  resulting 
increased  efficiency  more  than  pays  for  the  pension 
fund.  Pension,  profit-sharing  or  co-operation 
in  some  form,  as  a  business  proposition,  pays. 

The  United  States  Government  has  several 
thousand  aged  employes  on  its  salary  rolls,  many 
of  whom  undoubtedly  render  efficient  service, 
and  the  number  is  fast  increasing  year  by  year. 
Already  some  offices  find  their  work  seriously 
interfered  with  because  of  the  tottering  step  and 
the  uncertain  hand  of  infirm  employes.  In  the 
majority  of  cases,  these  old  men  have  served  the 
Government  from  young  manhood.  To  dismiss 
them  with  no  provision  for  their  declining  years 
would  be  heartless  and  savor  of  the  worst  form 
of  money-greed.  The  farm-horse,  broken  down 
with  years,  has  the  freedom  of  the  pasture;  the 
old  watch-dog  finds  a  warm  place  by  his  master's 
fireside.  Sentiment  rebels  at  injustice;  and  so 
the  aged  employes  are  carried  upon  the  public 
pay-roll  principally  for  what  they  have  done. 
In  many  cases  their  compensation  is  out  of  all 
proportion  to  their  meagre  services,  in  others 
they  are  a  direct  hindrance  to  the  promotion  of 
younger  and  more  efficient  men;  but  there  is  an 


The  Merit  System  77 

unwritten  law  that  rightly  decrees  that  these 
old  servants  of  the  public  shall  not  be  turned 
adrift. 

The  Quartermaster  General  of  the  Army1  puts 
the  conditions  in  the  following  words : 

The  higher  grades  of  clerkship  are  almost  entirely 
filled  by  men  who  have  been  for  years  in  the  service 
and  have  long  passed  the  age  at  which  men  are  most 
efficient  in  the  performance  of  such  duties.  With 
few  exceptions  these  gained  the  grades  they  now  hold 
through  ability  and  merit,  and  for  years  returned 
for  the  salaries  received,  full  value  or  better  in  services 
rendered.  Having  now  reached  the  point  in  life 
where  they  are  no  longer  able  to  do  this,  the  burden 
of  the  work  passes  on  to  the  younger  clerks,  with 
only  the  remote  possibility  of  also  securing  the  pay 
therefor  through  the  death,  reduction,  or  discharge 
of  the  older  men.  No  man,  I  believe,  with  the  slight- 
est appreciation  of  the  loyalty  of  these  old,  tried,  and 
faithful  employes  will  urge  that  they  should  be 
discharged,  and  a  reduction  in  salary  is  so  dishearten- 
ing to  them  as  to  render  nugatory  their  services  after 
such  action.  No  matter  how  kindly  the  necessity  is 
explained  to  them,  reduction  is  a  severe  blow,  with  a 
lasting  sting  keenly  felt  by  the  worthy  ones  who  have 
reached  the  period  where,  through  the  limitations  of 
nature,  retirement  ought  to  come. 

If  they  are  retained  in  the  grades  attained  by 
merit  in  the  period  when  they  could  and  did  do  all 
or  more  than  their  duty,  the  effect  on  the  younger 
clerks  who  then  do  the  work  is  depressing  in  the 

1  Ann.  Rept.  Quartermaster-General,  U.  S.  A.,  1905,  p.  65. 


78      Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

extreme.  Some  provision  for  retiring  the  old  clerks 
ought  to  be  made.  More  good  effects  on  adminis- 
tration would  probably  come  through  provision  for 
retirement  than  any  other  one  action  that  could  now  be 
taken,  and  its  effect  would  doubtless  prove  as  benefi- 
cial as  did  the  establishment  of  the  merit  system. 

Nearly  all  first-class  foreign  Governments  retire 
civil  employ6s  on  a  pension  at  a  stated  age,  much 
like  the  military  pension  system  in  America;  but 
our  country  is  a  conspicuous  exception  to  this 
practice.  It  is  a  tenet  ot  democracy  that  class 
and  caste  have  no  place  in  its  institutions,  and 
civil  pensions  are  now  expressly  prohibited  by 
Federal  statute.  Up  to  within  recent  years,  the 
establishment  of  a  civil  list  was  looked  upon  as 
the  first  step  toward  the  fixture  of  class  upon 
America.  Sentiment  is  undergoing  a  rapid  change 
with  increased  necessity,  and,  judging  from  present 
indications,  the  day  is  not  far  distant  when  some 
kind  of  a  fund  will  be  provided  for  taking  care 
of  aged  civilian  Government  employes.  Numer- 
ous plans  have  been  advocated,  ranging  from 
a  percentage  retention  of  each  employees  salary 
to  direct  appropriation  of  Treasury  funds.  There 
is  at  present  a  flourishing  civil -retirement  associ- 
ation with  headquarters  in  Washington.  The 
membership  of  this  association  is  not  composed 
entirely  of  old  men,  but  numbers  many  ambitious 
young  men  and  high  officials  in  its  ranks.  The 
association  purposes  to  educate  public  thought 
and  enlist  the  help  of  the  Congress. 


The  Merit  System  79 

In  connection  with  the  problem  of  superannu- 
ation, a  glance  at  the  following  figures  will  prove 
interesting.  The  table  shows  the  percentage  of 
persons  holding  competitive  positions  in  relation 
to  their  respective  ages,  grouped  in  decennial 
periods.  There  is  no  reason  for  believing  that 
the  percentages  will  materially  change,  though 
a  slight  rise  in  the  case  of  the  older  employes 
may  be  expected  as  the  young  office-holders 
grow  old  in  the  service. 

Age  Percentage 

Under  20  years 1.6  % 

20  to  30  years 24.6  % 

30  to  40  years 33.5  % 

40  to  50  years 21.1% 

50  to  60  years 10. 1  % 

60  to  70  years 5-9  % 

70  years  and  over 1.4  % 

Inequalities. — A  serious  flaw  in  the  merit 
system  is  the  unequal  distribution  of  work.  For 
example:  Of  ten  clerks  receiving  $1800  a  year, 
selected  at  random  in  Federal  offices,  scarcely 
half  will  be  found  to  perform  similar  duties. 
Some  of  the  ten  will  be  compelled  to  perform 
work  of  a  character  that  should  net  them  twice 
their  salary,  while  others  will  be  engaged  in  routine 
duties  that  could  be  done  by  beginners  in  the 
class  of  junior  clerks  of  manufacturing  or  railroad 
offices. 

Inequalities  of  work  and  salary  are  the  natural 


80       Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

outgrowth  of  a  ponderous  machine,  and  are  at- 
tributable to  no  one  cause  and  certainly  to  no 
individual  or  group  of  individuals.  Upon  the 
organization  of  a  new  bureau  or  department, 
estimates  are  prepared  to  cover  the  work  proposed, 
but  contingencies  are  bound  to  arise  that  could 
not  by  any  possible  means  have  been  fore- 
seen. These  contingencies  must  be  taken  care 
of  by  increased  effort  on  the  part  of  somebody. 
Again,  work  sometimes  has  a  natural  decrease 
in  volume,  involving  a  corresponding  lessening  of 
duties. 

In  whatsoever  way  the  inequalities  originate, 
they  are  a  source  of  disaffection  and  complaint 
among  employes.  Moreover,  it  must  be  admitted 
that  an  employe  can  scarcely  be  expected  to  ex- 
perience gratification  upon  learning  that  his 
friends  in  other  branches  of  the  public  service 
receive  better  pay  for  performing  work  of  much 
less  importance  than  that  which  falls  to  him. 
This  dissatisfaction  has  resulted  in  considerable 
annoyance  to  a  number  of  offices,  whose  employes 
seek  other  positions  where  the  rewards  are  more 
in  keeping  with  the  duties  performed. 

Various  plans  for  correcting  inequalities  have 
been  suggested;  but,  owing  to  the  vast  ramifica- 
tions of  the  Federal  service,  it  has  been  found 
impossible  to  do  more  than  adjust  individual 
cases.  Any  sweeping  change  would  doubtless 
result  in  more  inequalities  than  at  present  exist. 
Even  if  it  were  found  possible  to  make  an  equitable 


The  Merit  System  81 

distribution  of  work  in  accordance  with  the  com- 
pensation received,  the  natural  ebb  and  flow  of 
public  business  would  soon  throw  the  adjustment 
out  of  balance.  So  at  present  each  bureau  is 
expected  to  distribute  its  work  among  the  em- 
ployes to  suit  its  own  requirements,  independent 
of  the  conditions  elsewhere. 

Hours  of  Work. — The  law  requires  at  least 
seven  hours'  work  per  day  from  all  employes. 
This  is  the  minimum  and  may  be  extended  when 
the  public  exigencies  require  it.  Extra  work 
performed  by  salaried  employes  does  not  entitle 
them  to  additional  pay  in  the  event  they  are  paid 
by  the  year  or  month;  it  does,  however,  in  the 
case  of  per  diem,  per  hour,  or  piecework  employes. 
Refusal  to  perform  additional  work  when  the 
public  business  requires  it  is  cause  for  removal 
from  the  service.  Extra  work  is  seldom  required, 
as  it  is  not  considered  good  policy  to  impose 
additional  work  upon  employes,  but  rather  to 
make  enough  new  appointments  to  perform  the 
work  within  the  allotted  seven  hours. 

Thirty  days'  annual  vacation  with  pay,  exclu- 
sive of  Sundays  and  holidays,  is  usually  granted. 
Postal  employes  and  certain  per  diem  employes 
are  only  granted  fifteen  days'  vacation;  most  per 
diem  employ6s  receive  no  leave  of  absence  with 
pay.  Leave  with  pay  may  be  extended  fifteen 
or  thirty  days  in  the  event  of  sickness.  Thus, 
a  department  clerk  may  take  thirty  days'  leave 
of  absence  with  pay,  and  in  the  event  he  has  a 


82       Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

protracted  illness  he  may  take  thirty  more  days 
as  sick  leave. 

Leave  of  absence  is  not  a  right,  but  a  privilege. 
Like  extension  of  working  hours,  it  may  be  with- 
held when  the  exigencies  require  it,  and  this  is 
sometimes  done.  In  this  case  an  office-holder 
has  no  recourse.  Leave  of  absence  is  not  cumu- 
lative in  the  civil-service  and  must  be  taken 
within  the  year  and  at  the  time  granted.  Em- 
ployes are  expected  to  make  application  for  leave 
of  absence,  specifying  the  period  when  wanted. 
The  entire  period  allowed  may  be  taken  at  one 
time,  or  a  day  or  more  at  a  time.  All  absence 
during  official  hours  is  charged  against  the  annual 
leave. 


CHAPTER  V 

PREPARATION 

PREPARATION  is  the  foundation  of  success. 
It  is  the  weapon  that  enables  man  to  lay 
hold  upon  success.  Without  preparation  all 
effort  is  vain,  time  is  wasted,  and  disappoint- 
ment is  the  harvest.  The  unshod  foot  receives 
the  bruises. 

It  matters  not  what  a  man  would  be,  he  must 
be  prepared  if  he  expect  any  degree  of  success. 
The  clergyman  must  be  prepared  to  preach,  the 
physician  must  have  knowledge  of  remedies  to 
enable  him  to  heal,  the  lawyer  must  be  versed  in 
law  if  he  would  win  cases;  the  merchant  must 
understand  the  art  of  buying  and  selling,  the 
carpenter  must  be  able  to  handle  tools  or  be  idle, 
the  laborer  must  have  a  strong  body  if  he  would 
wring  wealth  from  the  soil.  Even  the  heir  to 
riches  must  be  prepared  to  take  care  of  his  in- 
heritance or  the  increment  will  elude  his  insecure 
grasp.  The  rule  of  preparation  has  no  exception, 
and  it  pertains  with  double  force  to  those  who 
would  serve  their  country,  whether  at  arms  or  in 
the  quieter  pursuits  of  peace.  It  involves  every 
position  under  the  Government  from  the  President 

83 


84      Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

to  the  charwoman,  and  is  the  note  sounding 
success  for  the  merit  system. 

The  untrained  man  finds  the  doors  closed  to 
him  everywhere,  but  when  he  turns  to  the  civil 
service  he  finds  them  barred  and  padlocked.  It 
is  useless  to  advance  excuses  for  lack  of  prepara- 
tion. It  matters  not  wThat  the  excuse  is;  the 
Government  has  work  to  do  and  will  have  men 
competent  to  do  it. 

The  conditions  of  securing  appointment  under 
the  merit  system  are  now  so  exacting  and  the 
tests  so  rigid  that  it  is  absolutely  useless  to  go 
unprepared  to  the  examination  room.  Whatever 
position  it  is  hoped  to  fill,  whether  on  the  conti- 
nent or  in  America's  possessions  beyond  the  seas, 
the  man  or  the  woman  with  negative  qualities  is 
not  wanted.  The  tests  of  fitness  begin  with  the 
lowest  position  and  increase  through  every  grade 
to  the  highest.  Many  of  the  lower  positions 
require  but  simple  tests  of  character  and  physical 
strength,  while  in  the  higher  places  men  of  wide 
learning  and  thorough  training  only  are  accepted. 
Some  places  require  not  only  learning  and  train- 
ing, but  in  addition  demand  specialization. 

Let  no  one  who  hopes  to  make  a  success  in 
Government  service  deceive  himself  by  thinking 
that  by  some  hook  or  crook  he  will  stumble  upon 
a  career.  There  are  flaws  in  our  governmental 
system,  as  there  are  in  all  things,  and  in  the 
methods  of  administering  it ;  but  whatever  the  mis- 
takes of   the   past   and  the   inequalities   of   the 


Preparation  85 

present,  America  has  long  passed  her  stumbling 
age.  The  adventurer,  the  experimenter,  the 
play-actor  find  no  niche  for  their  figures.  This 
Government  is  a  ponderous,  complicated  ma- 
chine whose  parts  work  together  for  the  common 
good.  When  the  usefulness  of  any  branch  be- 
comes impaired,  it  is  overhauled,  and  in  making 
repairs  it  is  certain  that  the  worn-out  parts  are 
not  going  to  be  replaced  by  others  equally  bad; 
nor  is  driftwood  used  in  building  additions  to  the 
growing  structure. 

Following  a  Purpose. — In  preparing  for 
Government  service,  whether  within  or  without 
the  merit  system,  a  number  of  conditions  should 
be  given  consideration,  that  the  highest  success 
may  be  attained.  As  in  any  other  career,  some 
definite  goal  should  be  kept  in  mind.  Men  having 
an  ambition  to  fill  high  office  under  the  Govern- 
ment usually  keep  a  particular  object  in  view, 
such  as  honor,  opportunity  for  self-development, 
or  a  desire  for  power.  Men  taking  up  work  with 
any  of  these  objects  before  them  are  invariably 
prepared  to  overcome  every  obstacle  that  may 
interfere  with  their  purpose;  it  is  not  necessary 
to  throw  out  any  suggestions  for  their  preparation, 
for  they  to  a  man  realize  how  necessary  it  is  to 
be  prepared. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  is  safe  to  say  that  not  one 
person  in  a  hundred,  perhaps  not  one  in  a  thou- 
sand, of  those  who  contemplate  entering  the  civil 
service  have  any  clear  idea  of  what  they  hope 


86       Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

ultimately  to  attain.  In  a  big  majority  of  the 
cases,  Government  service  is  inviting  because  it 
appears  to  offer  pleasant,  easy,  and  genteel  work, 
carrying  with  it  a  double  remuneration  in  money 
and  prestige.  It  is  rare  indeed  to  find  any  but 
the  most  befogged  notions  of  a  career  or  a  purpose 
to  be  followed.  This  is  particularly  true  of  those 
who  have  not  been  brought  into  contact  with 
office-holders  or  the  workings  of  the  Government ; 
for  these  a  romance  penetrates  the  whole  Federal 
system,  and  they  forthwith  decide  to  enter  the 
public  service.  Their  first  step  is  to  find  some 
person  who  can  tell  them  when,  where,  and  how 
to  make  application  for  a  position;  this  informa- 
tion having  been  gained,  their  next  step  is  to 
file  an  application  for  examination,  then  take 
the  examination — all  without  a  purpose,  except 
a  vague  romantic  hope  of  securing  a  Federal 
appointment. 

This  is  not  as  it  should  be.  A  few  moments' 
thought  will  convince  any  one  that  neither  the 
Government  nor  the  individual  can  reap  the 
benefits  that  would  accrue  to  both  were  applicants 
to  look  well  over  the  field  and,  following  their 
natural  bent,  strive  for  a  certain  position;  then, 
having  reached  this  decision,  to  keep  it  constantly 
in  mind  and  bend  every  energy  to  accomplish 
this  end.  As  one's  experience  and  grasp  of  Federal 
affairs  broaden,  there  is  at  times  the  strongest 
temptation  to  abandon  old  ambitions  and  take 
up   new  ones   leading  to   more  promising  fields. 


Preparation  87 

Temptations  of  this  kind  should  be  regarded 
with  suspicion  and  investigated  before  changing 
ambitions.  Haste  in  deciding  upon  any  field  of 
Government  service  should  be  guarded  against, 
for  mistakes  are  more  easily  avoided  than  cor- 
rected several  years  afterward.  When  Government 
service  is  contemplated,  it  is  well  to  go  slowly  in 
filing  an  application  for  examination. 

There  is  such  a  variety  of  positions  under  the 
Government  that  almost  any  person  can  find  one 
for  which  he  is  especially  suited;  time  used  in 
looking  up  these  places  will  prove  a  good  invest- 
ment and  often  save  disappointment.  Natural 
fitness  is  an  excellent  monitor  in  the  matter  of 
choosing  appointment. 

This  does  not  mean  that  one's  highest  ambition 
must  be  abandoned  for  something  commonplace. 
The  high  ambition  is  the  one  thing  to  be  kept 
in  mind  and  all  else  made  to  serve  as  a  means  of 
attaining  that  end;  but  entrance  in  the  Govern- 
ment service  cannot  always  be  in  the  coveted 
place.  A  machinist  should  not  hastily  prepare 
himself  for  a  stenographic  position;  the  sten- 
ographer, on  the  other  hand,  should  not  attempt 
an  examination  for  a  position  as  chief  of  division 
without  the  experience  and  preparation  that 
such  posts  require.  It  is  absolutely  necessary 
that  one  be  master  of  the  work  covered  by  the 
position  to  which  he  seeks  appointment. 

Choosing  a  Field. — The  proper  course  to  pur- 
sue in  preparing  for  a  civil-service  examination  is 


88       Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

to  write  to  the  Civil  Service  Commission,  Washing- 
ton, D.  C,  for  one  of  their  Manuals  of  Examina- 
tion. This  manual  describes  a  large  number  of 
positions  and  gives  in  a  general  way  a  list  of  the 
subjects  in  which  the  applicant  will  be  examined. 
A  careful  study  of  the  manual  should  be  made  to 
gain  familiarity  with  as  many  points  as  possible. 
It  is  not  infrequently  the  case  that  a  person  is 
fitted  for  more  than  one  kind  of  position,  in  which 
event  he  may  take  an  examination  for  each  place 
for  which  he  is  qualified  and  so  have  a  double 
chance  of  securing  an  appointment.  For  instance, 
a  man  may  be  qualified  as  an  editorial  clerk  and 
at  the  same  time  possess  a  sufficient  knowledge  of 
stenography  and  mathematics  to  make  him  useful 
to  the  Government  in  a  number  of  positions. 
Such  a  person  could,  with  perfect  consistency, 
take  an  examination  for  editorial  clerk,  one  for 
stenographer  and  typewriter,  and  another  for 
computer.  A  glance  over  the  manual  may  dis- 
close a  variety  of  positions  for  which  the  only 
preparation  necessary  is  a  little  academic  review. 
Examinations  are  Practical. — It  is  supposed 
in  a  good  many  quarters  that  the  examinations 
put  up  by  the  Civil  Service  Commission  are  not 
practical,  that  they  consist  of  learned  questions 
that  nobody  but  those  fresh  from  college  can 
answer,  and  that  they  have  no  practical  bearing 
upon  the  actual  duties  of  the  positions  which  they 
cover.  One  cannot  disabuse  his  mind  of  this 
idea  too  quickly  or  too  thoroughly. 


Preparation  89 

A  quarter  of  a  century's  experience  has  de- 
veloped the  practical  side  of  examinations  to  an 
extent  truly  surprising.  The  questions  put  out 
are  not  intended  to  be  ambiguous  or  traplike; 
they  are  what  any  one  versed  in  the  subjects 
covered  can  answer  with  plain  common-sense.  It 
is  not  necessary  to  go  into  the  world  of  conundrums 
for  answers.  It  is  necessary,  however,  to  be 
prepared ;  and  this  preparation  is  not  to  be  gained 
by  two  or  three  evenings  spent  in  cramming. 
The  preparation  must  be  based  on  more  than 
memory.  Any  one  desiring  to  put  himself  into 
shape  for  passing  a  civil-service  examination 
must  go  over  the  list  of  what  he  lacks  and  learn 
it;  and  this  learning  must  be  done  thoroughly 
and  intelligently. 

Nearly  all  examinations  comprising  tests  in 
educational  fitness  have  as  their  basis  what  are 
known  as  "grade"  subjects.  These  grade  or 
basic  subjects  are  divided  into  three  classes, 
according  to  their  degree  of  difficulty,  the  first 
grade  ranking  highest.  Whether  the  examina- 
tion be  for  the  position  of  messenger  or  scien- 
tific expert,  a  series  of  grade  subjects  is  given. 
Therefore,  it  is  quite  important  that  the  applicant 
for  a  civil-service  position  pay  some  attention  to 
the  grade  subjects.  The  Civil  Service  Manual 
will  tell  him  what  grade  subjects  are  required  in 
the  particular  examination  he  expects  to  take, 
and  he  will  prepare  himself  accordingly. 

It  is  not  well  to  depend  too  much  upon  past 


90      Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

accomplishments  in  taking  examinations  in  grade 
subjects,  as  the  questions  are  not  always  easy  to 
answer  even  for  one  who  has  had  extensive 
preparation.  A  thorough  review  of  the  subjects 
should  be  undertaken  before  the  candidate  pre- 
sents himself  for  examination,  for  it  will  be  re- 
membered that  failure  in  the  grade  subjects 
disqualifies  him  for  appointment,  though  he  pass 
in  the  optional  subjects  relating  to  his  special 
line. 

First  Grade. —  Subjects  of  this  grade  usually 
form  the  basis  of  examinations  for  clerical  and 
higher  places.     They  are  as  follows : 

i.  Spelling. — Usually  twenty  words  of  more 
than  average  difficulty,  dictated  by  the  examiner 
who  defines  each  word  as  he  gives  it  out.  Such 
words  as  the  following  are  given:  Discernible,  fa- 
cilitate, lineage,  privilege,  ambuscade,  disqualify, 
ambiguity,  precede,  acidity,  susceptibility,  as- 
perity, mollify,  inadvertent,  admissible,  delineate, 
academic,  fascinate,  freely,  nursery,  license,  etc. 
Any  high-school  graduate  should  be  able  to  spell 
any  word  given  in  the  first-grade  spelling. 

2.  Arithmetic. — Five  problems  covering  fun- 
damental rules,  common  fractions,  decimal  frac- 
tions, mixed  fractions,  mensuration,  United  States 
money,  percentage,  profit  and  loss,  partnership, 
brokerage,  insurance,  interest,  partial  payments, 
stocks  and  bonds,  simple  discount,  bank  dis- 
count, present  worth,  and  statement  of  simple 
accounts.     Any  one  expecting  to  present  himself 


Preparation  91 

for  examination  should  study  his  arithmetic 
if  he  be  unfamiliar  with  these  subjects.  Weakness 
in  arithmetic  is  sure  to  work  to  an  applicant's 
disadvantage. 

3.  Penmanship. — In  the  words  of  the  Civil 
Service  Commission,  this  subject  is  marked  upon 
"legibility,  rapidity,  neatness,  and  general  ap- 
pearance." Unless  one's  penmanship  is  very  bad 
he  should  not  waste  his  time  in  practising  on  this 
subject,  for  his  time  can  be  put  to  better  use  in 
the  review  of  more  important  subjects.  Strained, 
cramped,  stilted,  or  otherwise  restrained  penman- 
ship should  be  avoided.  Beautiful  handwriting 
is  largely  a  matter  of  natural  talent,  and  to  under- 
take its  cultivation  within  a  few  weeks  or  months 
borders  on  the  ridiculous.  He  has  to  be  a  good 
penman  indeed  who  attains  a  rating  of  eighty-five, 
and  extraordinarily  poor  to  fall  below  seventy. 
The  examiners  themselves  are  far  from  perfect  in 
penmanship,  but  otherwise  of  high  attainments; 
all  of  which  goes  far  to  show  that  penmanship 
has  little  to  do  with  learning  and  ability. 

4.  Letter-Writing. — This  subject  is  not  diffi- 
cult for  persons  who  have  had  newspaper  or  liter- 
ary training,  but  proves  a  hard  nut  to  crack  for 
many  others.  Even  the  man  with  commercial 
training  finds  considerable  trouble  in  writing  a 
letter  that  pleases  the  civil-service  examiners. 
The  commercialisms,  which  applicants  from  busi- 
ness offices  use  so  freely,  have  no  place  in  Gov- 
ernment correspondence.     Anything  that  savors  of 


92       Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

stiffness  or  confusion  in  either  words  or  ideas 
makes  a  poor  letter.  There  are  many  good  works 
on  letter-writing  which  it  would  be  well  for  the 
unpractised  to  study  before  taking  an  examination. 

5.  Copying  from  Rough  Draft. — This  ex- 
ercise is  designed  to  test  the  applicant's  ability 
to  make  smooth  copy  out  of  a  jumble  of  inter- 
lineations, corrections,  and  additions  as  may  be 
seen  from  the  example  reproduced  on  the  opposite 
page.  These  "rough  drafts"  are  well  named. 
They  are  common  throughout  Government  offices, 
due  to  two  reasons :  Inco-ordination  of  thought, 
and  a  desire  to  produce  polished  work.  Many 
of  the  rough  drafts  evolved  by  correspondents 
and  authors  are  peculiarly  ingenious  in  their 
confusion.  There  is  absolutely  no  rule  but  that 
of  watchfulness  to  be  followed  in  deciphering 
them.  Outside  of  the  publishing  house  and  the 
Government  office  there  is  practically  no  place 
where  experience  can  be  gained.  Stenographers 
of  wide  experience  will  have  no  difficulty  with 
the  rough  draft;  as  for  the  others,  the  only  watch- 
word is  care,  repeated  twice  over.  In  a  general 
way  it  may  be  said  that  all  inconsistencies  of 
punctuation,  orthography,  and  syntax  must  be 
corrected  and  the  sense  preserved. 

Second  Grade. — The  subjects  of  this  grade 
are  the  same  as  those  of  the  first  grade  but  less 
difficult, and  copying  from  plain  copy  is  substituted 
for  copying  from  the  rough  draft. 

1.     Spelling. — Twenty  fairly   difficult  words, 


J^ 


/to>   «-  ^* 


/-£_ 


Ti 


Preparation  93 

such  as  masculine,  freedom,  trying,  seldom, 
philosophy,  factory,  consistent,  experimental,  ex- 
cision, annexation,  infinity,  hygienic,  etc. 

3.  Arithmetic. — Addition,  subtraction,  multi- 
plication, division,  common  and  decimal  fractions, 
mensuration,  United  States  money. 

3.  Letter-Writing. — One  of  two  given  sub- 
jects will  be  chosen  by  the  competitor,  who  will 
be  required  to  write  a  letter  of  125  words.  The 
same  care  as  indicated  in  the  first-grade  subjects 
should  govern. 

4.  Penmanship. — Neatness,  legibility,  rapid- 
ity, and  general  appearance  are  considered. 

5.  Copying  from  Plain  Copy. — The  competi- 
tor will  be  expected  to  make  an  exact  copy  of  a 
short  article  given  him  by  the  examiner,  observ- 
ing capitalization,  punctuation,  paragraphs,  errors, 
and  inconsistencies,  and  copying  them  exactly  as 
they  appear. 

Third  Grade. — This  grade  is  designed  for  sub- 
clerical  positions  requiring  some  educational  quali- 
fications, such  as  that  of  messenger.  Persons  who 
have  had  the  schooling  of  an  ordinary  fourteen- 
year-old  boy  should  have  no  difficulty  in  passing. 
The  same  subjects  as  in  the  second  grade  are  used, 
each  being  much  less  rigid. 

1.  Spelling. — Twenty  easy  words,  such  as 
final,  broaden,  expect,  guess,  farther,  treatment, 
subtraction,  promise,  division. 

2.  Arithmetic. — Addition,  subtraction,  multi- 
plication,   division,    and    United    States    money. 


94       Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

Fractions  and  anything  higher  are  not  required. 

3 .  Letter-Writing. — This  exercise  is  designed 
to  test  the  applicant's  use  of  simple  English.  It 
is  not  expected  that  a  skilfully-constructed  and 
finely-worded  letter  will  be  submitted  as  in  the 
case  of  the  first  grade. 

4.  Penmanship. — The  same  requirements  as 
in  the  first  and  second  grades,  with  more  leniency 
in  marking. 

5.  Copying  from  Plain  Copy. — The  same  as 
in  the  second  grade,  except  that  the  matter  to  be 
copied  is  usually  easier  and  simpler. 

The  grade  subjects  are  sometimes  varied  accord- 
ing to  the  examination;  but  whatever  other 
subjects  are  required  it  is  well  to  pay  some  atten- 
tion to  arithmetic  and  letter- writing,  owing  to 
the  fact  that  knowledge  of  both  is  needed  in  every 
position  above  the  mechanical  trades. 

At  irregular  intervals,  as  the  country  expands 
or  new  legislation  is  enacted,  the  Government 
calls  for  men  qualified  in  commercial  pursuits  or 
economic  interests,  and  special  examinations  are 
held  to  fill  the  vacancies.  Positions  of  this  kind 
embrace  a  wide  variety  of  inspectorships,  com- 
missionerships,  and  special  employment.  As  may 
be  surmised,  preparation  for  positions  in  this  class 
consists  principally  of  experience  which  only  time 
and  attention  to  work  in  former  positions  can 
give.  All,  however,  require  an  academic  exam- 
ination, the  basis  of  which  is  the  first-grade 
examination.     A  thesis  is  usually  called  for  to  test 


Preparation  95 

the  candidate's  skill  in  expressing  his  ideas  clearly 
and  concisely,  a  necessity  required  in  official 
correspondence  and  in  making  reports  of  progress. 

However  well  qualified  a  man  may  be  in  his 
particular  specialty,  it  is  hardly  creditable  to  the 
Government  to  engage  his  services  if  he  cannot 
write  good  English.  So  when  a  man  engaged  in 
industrial  pursuits  decides  to  take  up  Government 
service  he  should  prepare  himself  to  pass  the  first- 
grade  examination  and  to  write  a  thesis  of  300  to 
1000  words.  As  fluency  in  writing  only  comes 
from  practice,  he  should  act  accordingly  in  the 
event  he  has  had  no  extensive  experience  in 
English  composition.  This  experience  is  not  to 
be  gained  from  text-books  on  rhetoric  or  grammar, 
but  from  actual  composition. 

Writing  a  Thesis. — A  thesis  is  nothing  but 
a  "composition."  The  schoolboy's  composition 
on  "Sugar"  is  as  much  a  thesis  as  the  chemist's 
composition  on  "Cholin  Derivatives"  or  the 
physician's  learned  disquisition  on  ' '  Radio-therapy 
in  Relation  to  the  Bacillus  lepra."  Many  appli- 
cants take  fright  at  the  word  "thesis."  There 
is  nothing  at  all  mysterious  in  the  word;  it  is 
simply  a  high-sounding  term  supplanting  the  old- 
fashioned  word  "composition."  So,  forgetting 
all  reverence  for  the  word  "thesis,"  the  novice  at 
writing  English  may  perform  wonders  with  intelli- 
gent practice. 

Assuming  that  a  high-grade  clerk  in  a  com- 
mercial office  is  ambitious  of  Government  service, 


96       Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

but  lacks  the  capacity  to  write  a  thesis  on  a  given 
subject  with  which  he  is  reasonably  familiar, 
his  proper  course  is  to  practise  writing  theses  until 
he  has  a  good  command  of  English.  It  may 
take  a  year  or  more  of  hard  work  before  he  can 
write  anything  satisfactory.  By  following  a  few 
simple  rules,  however,  he  will  find  the  task  less 
burdensome  and  the  results  much  better.  These 
rules  are  as  follows : 

1.  Familiarity  with  the  Subject. — The  ap- 
plicant is  usually  assigned  three  topics  bearing 
upon  the  particular  subject  in  which  he  is  to  be 
examined,  from  which  he  may  select  one.  From 
this  it  will  be  seen  that  familiarity  with  the  subject 
depends  upon  familiarity  with  his  occupation. 

2.  Arrangement  of  Ideas  before  Con- 
signing them  to  Paper. — Ideas  should  have 
logical  arrangement  and  bear  relation  to  each 
other.  Disconnected  sentences  look  worse  on 
paper  than  when  spoken,  and  the  reader's  con- 
fusion is  consequently  greater.  Ambiguities  and 
repetition  of  words  or  ideas  are  out  of  place.  The 
more  simply  the  thoughts  are  expressed  the  better. 

3.  Confinement  to  the  Subject. — This  is  an 
art.  One  may  be  a  skilful  writer  and  his  use  of 
English  entitle  him  to  high  rank  in  literature ;  but 
if  he  wander  far  from  the  subject  his  usefulness  in 
writing  Government  papers  will  be  reduced  to 
total  inefficiency.  Rambling  and  padding  must 
be  avoided. 

4.  Regular   Practice   at  Composition. — A 


Preparation  97 

daily  practice  of  one  hour  continued  for  six  months 
will  generally  result  in  an  ability  to  produce 
readable  articles.  Constant  practice  is  the  thing 
that  develops  newspaper  reporters,  and  the 
same  rule  holds  true  in  the  case  of  writers  in  other 
lines  of  work.  A  careful  and  intelligent  "write- 
up"  on,  say,  twenty-five  titles  may  mean  the 
discovery  of  dormant  talent.  The  ironclad  rule 
is  regularity. 

Following  these  four  rules,  a  clerk  in  a  railroad 
office  should  write  upon  such  subjects  as  "Rail- 
road Systems  of  the  United  States,"  "Tariffs," 
"The  Railroad  as  a  Common  Carrier,"  "Public 
Ownership,"  etc.  A  man  in  the  iron  trade  would 
take  up  subjects  relating  to  his  business;  among 
them  would  be  "Supply  and  Demand,"  "Cost  Ac- 
counts," "Corporate  Rights,"  "Competition  with 
Foreign  Producers,"  and  similar  topics.  A  bank 
clerk  would  write  on  "Negotiable  Paper,"  "The 
Dependence  of  the  Country's  Prosperity  upon 
National  Financial  Policies,"  "The  Relationship 
between  Savings  Banks,  National  Banks,  and  Trust 
Companies,"  and  so  on.  The  subjects  to  be  se- 
lected are  endless  and  vary  with  occupations. 
By  selecting  a  dozen  titles  and  writing  close  to 
the  subject,  facility  in  writing  will  come  uncon- 
sciously and  a  store  of  information  will  be  gained 
in  the  process ;  and  it  is  to  be  remembered  that  one 
cannot  possess  too  much  information. 

The  Civil  Service  Commission  requires  much 
better   theses    in    their    examinations    than    the 


98       Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

English  in  the  average  Government  report,  and 
the  standard  of  thesis-writing  is  being  raised.  It 
is  advisable  that  persons  seeking  appointment  to 
the  best  positions  in  the  civil  service  learn  the 
use  of  good  English. 

Copying  from  books  or  magazines  is  not  thesis- 
writing,  nor  is  the  use  of  other  persons'  thoughts. 
When  selecting  a  subject,  it  is  well  to  choose  an 
unfamiliar  phase  of  the  work  in  which  the  writer 
is  engaged.  Having  chosen  a  subject,  it  should 
be  studied  and  investigated  before  a  pen  is  touched 
to  the  paper ;  then  the  thought  expressed  will  bear 
the  signs  of  originality  and  the  composition  of  the 
thesis  proceed  from  a  logical  beginning  to  a  logical 
ending.  Set  phrases,  commercialisms,  and  awk- 
ward word  combinations  should  be  avoided ;  these 
always  look  laborious  and  detract  from  the  in- 
terest of  an  otherwise  good  article.  Short, 
concise  sentences  are  the  best ;  they  are  easier  to 
write,  easier  to  read,  and  easier  to  understand. 

Training  Schools. — Every  trade  and  every 
calling  has  its  system  of  preliminary  training  to 
equip  men  and  women  for  the  work.  The  wider 
the  field  the  more  training  schools  are  necessary. 
The  professional  man,  the  technical  aspirant,  the 
commercialist,  and  the  skilled  mechanic  have 
spent  years  at  training  schools  in  securing  their 
educational  equipment  for  life's  career.  Hun- 
dreds upon  hundreds  of  trades,  commercial,  and 
fine  arts  schools  flourish  in  this  country.  It  mat- 
ters little  what  occupation  a  man  would  take  up, 


Preparation  99 

he  can  have  the  benefit  of  training  in  his  special 
line ;  the  best  instructors  that  the  country  affords 
are  ready  to  help  the  ambitious  man.  But  there 
is  one  singular  exception  to  this. 

There  is  no  school  in  this  country  providing  a 
thorough  course  of  instruction  in  Government 
practice.  Candidates  entering  the  public  service 
have  to  be  trained  in  the  theories  and  practice 
of  Government  after  they  have  secured  appoint- 
ment, a  system  that  is  often  costly  and  time- 
consuming  to  the  Government  as  well  as  to  the 
employe.  The  only  institutions  providing  collegi- 
ate courses  for  Federal  service  are  those  operated 
by  the  fighting  arm  of  the  Government — West 
Point  and  Annapolis.  The  civil  service,  providing 
thousands  of  well-paying  and  honorable  positions, 
is  an  establishment  that  would  seem  to  be  an 
especially  attractive  one  for  educators  to  exploit. 
Well-prepared  and  liberally-educated  persons  are 
always  at  a  premium  and  command  the  best  posts 
in  the  civil  service. 

Perhaps  a  college  course  specializing  in  Govern- 
ment service  would  be  criticised  by  our  demo- 
cratic people  as  tending  toward  the  establishment 
of  a  favored  class.  However  that  may  be,  the 
benefits  to  be  derived  from  such  instruction  are 
scarcely  open  to  doubt.  Persons  seeking  special 
preparation  for  entry  into  the  public  service  are 
now  forced  to  rely  entirely  upon  private  schools 
for  instruction  and  such  stray  bits  of  information 
as  may  be  gleaned  here  and  there.     These  private 


ioo    Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

schools  are  usually  commercial  colleges,  a  few  of 
which  offer  civil-service  courses  as  subsidiary 
branches  of  the  main  establishment. 

Are  commercial  colleges  helpful  to  an  applicant  ? 
If  one  find,  himself  deficient  in  any  of  the  basic  or 
"grade"  subjects,  a  course  in  a  first-class  com- 
mercial school  will  be  of  inestimable  value.  No 
matter  how  competent  one  may  be  to  instruct 
himself,  a  school  has  the  advantage  of  offering 
definite,  prescribed  instruction  and  teachers  whose 
duty  it  is  to  bring  the  student  creditably  through 
his  course.  The  particular  advantage  of  a  school 
course  is  to  have  some  one  say  that  this  or  that 
must  be  done. 

The  majority  of  schools  offering  civil-service 
courses  are  honestly  and  intelligently  conducted 
and  do  all  that  they  claim.  In  selecting  a  com- 
mercial school,  it  is  best  to  patronize  home  indus- 
tries. If  the  business  colleges  of  the  candidate's 
home  town  do  not  offer  civil-service  courses, 
recourse  may  be  had  to  a  reliable  correspondence 
school,  a  number  of  which  offer  excellent  short 
courses  in  the  grade  subjects  and  branches  leading 
to  clerical  positions.  If  unknown,  always  investi- 
gate a  correspondence  school  by  writing  to  a 
prominent  citizen,  a  bank,  or  the  superintendent 
of  public  schools  in  the  city  where  the  institution 
is  situated.  This  is  advisable  on  account  of 
various  swindling  games  operated  under  the  name 
of  "correspondence  schools."  It  is  generally  safe 
to  set  down  as  a  fraud  any  establishment  offering 


J_ 

Preparation  101 

something  for  nothing.  A  moment's  thought 
should  convince  any  one  that  it  is  not  sound  busi- 
ness to  offer  something  for  nothing;  and  when  an 
institution  advertises  that  "We  don't  want  your 
money,"  it  is  well  to  think  twice  before  risking  any 
chances  with  it. 

Some  schools  make  a  specialty  of  preparing 
candidates  for  civil-service  examinations,  charging 
therefor  a  small  tuition  fee  with  the  understanding 
that  the  student  is  to  pay  somewhat  more  than 
the  usual  charge  for  a  scholarship  after  he  has 
secured  a  Government  position.  These  schools 
usually  treat  their  patrons  fairly  and  justly,  as 
it  is  to  their  interest  to  do  so,  every  successful 
student  being  an  advertisement. 

There  are  several  reliable  "quizzes"  and 
"coaches"  in  the  large  Eastern  cities  making  a 
specialty  of  preparations  for  medical  and  technical 
positions.  Personal  attendance  is  required  at  these 
establishments.  The  usual  charge  is  one  hundred 
dollars  for  a  complete  course,  payable  in  advance. 
The  instruction  is  well  worth  the  money,  inasmuch 
as  men  who  have  seen  long  Federal  service  are 
usually  connected  with  the  enterprises.  As  in  the 
case  of  the  unknown  commercial  or  correspondence 
school,  it  is  well  to  make  inquiry  concerning  their 
responsibility. 

While  advisable,  it  is  not  always  necessary  to 
attend  a  commercial  school  when  preparing  for  a 
civil-service  examination,  providing  the  applicant 
has  the  industry  and  persistence  to  hold  himself 


102     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

to  regular  study.  However,  man  ordinarily  re- 
quires a  teacher  in  most  things,  and  preparation 
for  civil-service  examination  certainly  comes 
within  the  scope  of  this  rule.  The  strongest 
argument  in  favor  of  the  commercial  college  is 
the  fact  that  there  are  to-day  many  hun- 
dreds of  efficient  Federal  employes  who  owe 
their  appointment  to  preparation  made  at  such 
schools. 

In  this  connection  it  is  proper  to  say  that  the 
Government  does  not  have  association  with  any 
school  for  training  applicants  for  civil-service  posi- 
tions. Any  school  advertising  such  an  arrange- 
ment is  a  fraud.  Not  only  does  the  Government 
refrain  from  preparing  applicants,  but  persons  are 
prohibited  from  performing  work  in  Government 
offices  with  the  object  of  fitting  themselves  for 
examination. 

Coaching  Applicants. — Prior  to  October  13, 
1905,  many  office-holders  did  a  nourishing  and, 
in  some  cases,  a  lucrative  business  in  coaching 
applicants  for  positions.  Owing  to  their  famili- 
arity with  requirements  and  the  general  trend  of 
questions,  it  was  easy  for  civil-service  employes 
to  train  applicants  for  examination.  A  few 
weeks'  instruction  from  an  experienced  and  bright 
office-holder  would  be  sufficient  to  enable  an 
applicant  to  pass  an  examination.  As  may  be 
supposed,  this  practice  grew  to  such  proportions 
as  to  become  not  only  a  nuisance  but  a  pronounced 
discredit    to    the    Government,    inasmuch    as    it 


Preparation  103 

afforded  undue  advantage  to  those  who  were  so 
fortunate  as  to  have  a  friend  at  court,  but  lacked 
the  quality  of  supplying  the  general  knowledge 
that  a  successful  applicant  should  possess.  Then 
again  it  did  not  look  well,  to  say  the  least,  for 
Federal  office-holders  to  peddle  commercially  or 
give  to  their  friends  the  superficial  information 
that  might  result  in  passing  marks  being  earned. 
It  is  not  necessary  to  go  deep  into  the  ethics  of 
the  practice.  Suffice  it  to  say  that  the  conditions 
assumed  such  an  unfavorable  aspect  that  the  Presi- 
dent brought  it  to  an  end.  Instruction  of  appli- 
cants by  Government  officers  or  employes  is  now 
an  offence  punishable  by  summary  dismissal  from 
the  public  service. 

General  Information. — There  is  a  growing 
demand  on  the  part  of  appointing  officers  for 
eligibles  possessing  a  fund  of  general  information 
in  addition  to  scholastic  attainments.  It  is 
maintained  by  those  in  position  to  know,  that  an 
applicant  who  is  well  informed  upon  general 
events  is  better  suited  for  Government  work  than 
one  who  secures  a  high  rating  on  educational 
subjects  only.  It  is  an  indication  that  the 
applicant  not  only  keeps  abreast  of  the  times, 
but  that  he  is  mentally  inquisitive  and  is  some- 
thing more  than  a  machine.  Owing  to  this 
demand,  the  Civil  Service  Commission  often  ex- 
amines in  "General  Information."  It  is  there- 
fore advisable  for  applicants,  particularly  those 
ambitious   to   secure   the   best   posts,   to   inform 


104     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

themselves  upon  general  events  before  presenting 
themselves  for  examination. 

Preparation  in  this  subject  is  somewhat  un- 
certain, owing  to  its  broad  scope.  In  a  general 
way  it  may  be  said  that  the  questions  asked  are 
ones  which  any  well-informed  citizen  should  have 
no  difficulty  in  answering;  note  the  word  well. 
They  usually  cover  current  events,  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  United  States  Government,  the  names 
of  the  more  important  officials,  conspicuous  events 
and  persons  of  literature  and  history,  geography, 
and  a  wide  variety  of  common-sense  information. 

In  conclusion,  candidates  for  Government  office 
are  reminded  that  cramming  does  not  educate; 
in  many  ways  it  is  an  evil.  One  may  memorize 
and  pack  his  head  full  of  all  kinds  of  disorganized 
facts  which  are  entirely  useless.  The  examina- 
tions laid  down  by  the  Civil  Service  Commission 
are  practical,  and  in  preparing  for  them  one  must 
be  guided,  above  all,  by  plenty  of  good  sense. 


CHAPTER  VI 

EXAMINATION 

SINCE  the  establishment  of  the  merit  system 
in  1883,  about  1,100,000  persons  have  been 
examined  for  all  branches  of  the  classified  service. 
Nearly  800,000,  or  72  per  cent,  of  these  passed. 
The  number  of  persons  examined  increased  from 
3500  in  the  first  year  of  the  merit  system  to  over 
125,000  annually — the  average  for  the  last  five 
years. 

The  examinations  conducted  by  the  Civil 
Service  Commission  are  held  in  all  the  States  and 
Territories  with  the  single  exception  of  Alaska. 
An  attempt  is  made  to  group  the  principal  kinds 
of  examinations  and  hold  sittings  for  them  twice 
a  year,  known  as  the  "spring"  and  "autumn" 
examinations.  Owing  to  the  wide  range  of  sub- 
jects, it  is  not  feasible  to  group  all  examinations 
in  this  manner,  and  the  others  are  held  at  the 
principal  large  cities  according  to  the  importance 
of  the  examinations.  Sometimes,  when  the  de- 
mand for  eligibles  is  light,  one  of  the  spring  or 
autumn  examinations  may  be  omitted,  a  con- 
dition that  is  particularly  applicable  to  clerical 
positions. 

105 


106     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

Making  Application. — A  quite  general  idea 
is  prevalent  that  it  is  necessary  to  secure  informa- 
tion concerning  examinations  through  third  par- 
ties, usually  politicians.  This  is  not  at  all  the 
case ;  the  practice  merely  wastes  time  and  serves  no 
good  end.  The  proper  way  to  secure  information 
concerning  any  particular  examination  is  to 
apply  direct  to  the  Civil  Service  Commission, 
Washington,  D.  C.  If  the  examination  be  not  con- 
ducted from  the  Commission's  headquarters,  the 
applicant's  letter  will  be  referred  to  the  proper 
district  and  he  will  receive  a  prompt  answer  to 
his  inquiries.  In  addressing  inquiries  to  the 
Commission,  the  shorter  the  communication  the 
better;  the  Commission  receives  thousands  upon 
thousands  of  letters  a  year,  and  an  extra  minute 
or  two  per  letter  spent  in  reading  them  means,  in 
the  aggregate,  many  days  of  hard  work. 

In  filling  out  the  application  forms  brevity  is 
by  no  means  the  soul  of  wit,  but  many  times 
results  in  loss  of  appointment.  Every  question 
should  be  carefully  answered  and  this  does  not 
mean  the  insertion  of  various  check  marks  such 
as  /  x  — ~  in  the  spaces  provided  for  answers. 
Every  question  should  be  answered  fully.  It  is 
to  be  remembered  that  appointing  officers  want 
to  know  something  about  the  persons  whom  they 
nominate  to  be  their  official  associates  and  the  only 
way  they  can  learn  anything  is  from  the  papers 
themselves.  An  applicant  may  attain  a  high 
rating  upon  his  examination  and  yet  fall  short 


Examination  107 

of  appointment  because  his  application  looks 
suspicious  or  does  not  say  something  that  should 
have  been  said. 

In  cases  where  a  personal  history  is  called  for 
it  should  be  given  completely,  for  the  answers 
will  bring  out  certain  accomplishments  in  the 
way  of  education  or  experience  not  hinted  at  in 
the  examination  itself  and  serve  to  influence  the 
appointing  officer  in  making  his  selection.  "Re- 
served knowledge  is  reserved  strength,"  but  if 
the  appointing  officer  knows  nothing  about  this 
reserved  knowledge  he  is  not  likely  to  be  impressed 
with  it.  Modesty  is  all  right  in  its  place,  but  there 
is  danger  of  carrying  that  virtue  to  excess  when 
it  comes  to  a  civil-service  examination.  An  ap- 
plicant need  not  be  afraid  of  saying  too  much 
about  himself  and  his  accomplishments,  provided 
he  is  ready  to  prove  his  mettle. 

Scholastic  qualifications  alone  do  not  adequately 
suit  the  requirements  in  a  large  number  of  posi- 
tions; but,  on  the  lottery  principle  that  prizes  are 
few,  appointing  officers  content  themselves  wTith 
a  glance  at  the  ratings  and  a  careful  perusal  of  the 
personal  history  and  collateral  facts  that  candi- 
dates put  in  their  applications.  This  serves  to 
emphasize  the  necessity  of  giving  a  full  personal 
history  when  making  application. 

It  is  perhaps  almost  needless  to  say  that  a  false 
statement  is  cause  for  cancelling  the  application, 
and  any  fraud  is  likely  to  result  in  considerable 
trouble  for  the  unsuspecting  candidate.     Frauds 


io8     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

in  connection  with  examinations  are  offences 
against  the  United  States,  and  it  is  the  policy 
of  our  Government  to  bring  offenders  to  justice 
regardless  of  time  or  money.  If,  through  over- 
sight or  error,  a  misstatement  be  made,  it  can 
be  rectified  by  laying  the  matter  before  the 
Commission. 

Persons  Barred  from  Examination. — The 
following  causes  bar  applicants  from  examination: 

i .     Allegiance  to  a  foreign  government. 

2.  Physical  or  mental  incapacity. 

3.  The  excessive  use  of  intoxicants. 

4.  Enlistment  in  the  army  or  navy  unless 
permission  for  taking  the  examination  has  been 
secured  from  the  Secretary  of  War  or  the  Secre- 
tary of  the  Navy. 

5.  Nonconformity  with  age  requirements. 

6.  Eligibility  for  appointment  to  the  position 
covered  by  the  examination. 

7.  Dismissal  from  the  public  service  for  de- 
linquency within  a  year  preceding  application. 

8.  Failure  to  receive  absolute  appointment. 
In  this  case  a  candidate's  application  will  be 
accepted  after  one  year  from  the  expiration  of 
the  probational  period. 

9.  Crime  or  disgraceful  conduct. 
Applications  that  are  disapproved  are  retained 

in  the  Commission's  files  for  further  reference. 

Recommendations. — In  making  application  for 
civil-service  examination,  no  recommendation 
other  than  those  called  for  in  the  printed  form 


Examination  109 

will  be  accepted.  Here  is  another  point  where 
many  go  astray.  The  popular  idea  that  political 
or  other  "influence"  will  help  a  candidate  is  all 
wrong.  There  are  times  and  occasions,  spoken 
of  elsewhere  in  this  book,  when  "influence"  does 
help  one  along  the  road  to  success,  but  the  civil- 
service  examination  is  not  one  of  them.  When 
it  comes  to  an  examination,  every  one  must  stand 
on  his  merits.  It  is  useless  for  the  applicant  to 
file  more  recommendations  than  called  for,  as  they 
will  receive  no  consideration,  no  matter  by  whom 
given  or  how  excellent  they  may  be. 

Citizenship. — Some  years  ago  a  large  number 
of  aliens  held  positions  in  our  civil  service,  owing 
to  lax  methods  of  appointment.  This  condition 
was  seized  upon  by  the  newspapers  who  created 
an  adverse  public  sentiment  upon  the  subject, 
and  the  result  was  a  house-cleaning  in  the  Federal 
departments.  The  foreign-born  employes  were 
invited  to  present  citizenship  papers ;  upon  failure 
to  do  so  dismissal  followed. 

It  is  easy  to  see  that  under  such  a  system  any 
or  all  nations  could  secure  an  unlimited  amount 
of  information  concerning  the  workings  and 
policies  of  our  Government  simply  by  delegat- 
ing agents  to  accept  positions  in  our  service.  This 
practice  would  not  be  especially  harmful  in  times 
of  peace;  unfortunately,  nations  cannot  live  to- 
gether more  peaceably  than  can  individuals,  and 
the  information  gathered  in  peace  could  be  used 
against  us  in  war.    So  the  United  States  now  makes 


no     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

an  almost  universal  requirement  of  citizenship  as 
a  condition  for  appointment. 

Proof  of  American  citizenship  must  be  sub- 
mitted by  the  foreign-born  applicant.  A  declara- 
tion of  intention  to  take  out  citizenship  papers 
is  not  naturalization  and  will  not  be  accepted 
as  such.  In  the  event  the  naturalization  papers 
are  lost,  certified  copies  must  be  submitted  with 
the  application. 

Fees. — At  present  the  Government  charges  no 
fee  in  connection  with  examination  for  civil 
positions.  The  Commission  has  repeatedly  sug- 
gested that  an  examination  fee  be  charged.  It  is 
maintained  that  a  small  fee,  say  one  dollar  for  an 
examination,  would  reduce  the  number  of  appli- 
cants. Of  the  thousands  examined  yearly  many 
are  so  hopelessly  ill  prepared  that  the  time  con- 
sumed in  examining  them  is  wasted.  It  is  certain 
that  a  small  fee  would  discourage  inadequately 
prepared  applicants.  As  the  system  is  operated 
at  present  any  one,  no  matter  how  inefficient, 
may  apply  for  and  take  any  examination  he  desires. 
The  results  of  examinations  show  that  many 
persons  present  themselves  with  no  hope  of  passing, 
but  having  as  their  sole  object  that  of  ascertaining 
what  the  examination  is  like,  then  presenting 
themselves  later  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining 
passing  marks.  It  is  evident  that  such  persons 
would  not  care  to  pay  even  a  small  fee  for  the 
privilege  of  examination.  A  reduction  in  the 
number  of  persons  examined  would  be  a  corre- 


Examination  m 

sponding  saving  to  the  Government.  Some  effort 
has  been  made  to  secure  legislation  providing 
for  examination  fees,  but  the  Congress  has  refused 
to  sanction  the  assessment. 

Examination  of  Persons  in  Government 
Service. — A  person  holding  a  classified  position 
may  be  examined  and  appointed  to  a  position 
other  than  the  kind  occupied  at  the  time  of  ex- 
amination. Thus,  a  mechanic  could  be  examined 
for  a  clerkship,  a  clerk  could  be  examined  for  a 
position  as  translator,  a  scientist  could  compete 
for  a  place  as  chief  of  division,  and  so  on.  So 
long  as  the  position  covered  by  the  examination 
is  of  a  kind  different  from  that  held  by  the  em- 
ploye, there  is  no  objection  to  his  competing.  In 
fact,  the  Government  employe  will,  four  times  out 
of  five,  be  named  to  fill  the  place  in  preference  to 
other  candidates,  conditions  being  equal.  Nomi- 
nating officers  naturally  prefer  applicants 
experienced  in  Government  methods,  and  thus 
save  themselves  the  trouble  of  training  their 
assistants. 

Strange  as  it  may  seem,  a  large  proportion 
of  office-holders  do  not  know  that  they  have  a 
right  to  be  examined  for  other  positions,  and  they 
plod  along  year  after  year  striving  to  reach  the 
head  of  their  class.  Many  who  find  things  scarcely 
up  to  their  hopes  would  be  able,  without  special 
preparation,  to  pass  examinations  and  secure  ap- 
pointments to  more  desirable  posts.  This  goes 
to  show  that  public  employ6s  do  not  know  enough 


ii2     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

about  the  Government;  but,  as  the  saying  goes, 
"we  live  and  learn." 

Examinations  for  Insular  Positions. — By 
the  word  "insular"  is  meant  island  possessions 
outside  the  actual  boundaries  of  the  United  States. 
The  requirements  for  examinations  covering  po- 
sitions in  these  services  are  constantly  changing, 
and  the  only  way  to  keep  in  touch  is  to  write  the 
Civil  Service  Commission  for  information.  The 
Commission,  in  a  general  way,  works  in  close 
harmony  with  the  various  island  boards,  aiding 
and  assisting  them  in  every  way  possible. 

When  conditions  are  equal, natives  are  appointed 
in  preference  to  candidates  from  "the  States," 
as  it  is  the  policy  of  this  Government  to  encourage 
the  residents  of  newly  acquired  territory  in  self- 
government.  When  it  becomes  necessary,  in 
the  establishment  or  extension  of  American  rule, 
to  make  civil  appointments  from  this  country, 
the  requirements  are  somewhat  minimized  in  view 
of  the  inconveniences  of  climate,  language,  local 
customs,  and  separation  from  home  ties  that  are 
to  be  encountered  in  accepting  appointment.  As 
conditions  change,  the  residents  of  the  "posses- 
sions" or  colonies  acquire  the  American  habit  of 
office-seeking,  the  examination  standards  are 
raised,  and  in  many  cases  citizens  from  the  con- 
tinent are  excluded  from  competition. 

The  Philippine  and  Porto  Rican  civil  services 
are  gradually  becoming  closed  to  American 
residents,  and  there  is  little  doubt  that  the  future 


Examination  113 

will  see  quite  all  the  minor  posts  filled  by  natives. 
Even  now  the  appointments  from  the  Stales 
are  limited  to  technical  or  administrative  posts. 

Civil-service  conditions  in  Panama  are  some- 
what confused.  An  effort  was  made  to  place  the 
whole  work  upon  a  competitive  basis,  but  owing 
to  the  conditions  of  work  and  compensation  it 
became  difficult  to  secure  American  eligibles. 
Therefore,  all  positions  except  a  few  of  a  clerical, 
scientific,  and  executive  nature  were  removed 
from  the  classified  service.  The  requirements  for 
admission  to  competitive  positions  are  the  same 
as  for  the  States,  with  entrance  salaries  from 
2  5  t°  75  Per  cent,  higher. 

Special  Examinations. — The  regularly  sched- 
uled examinations  do  not  by  any  means  cover 
the  varied  kinds  of  positions  which-  the  Civil 
Service  Commission  is  called  upon  to  fill.  The 
extension  of  the  departments,  the  organization 
of  new  bureaus,  and  the  creation  of  vacancies 
require  special  examinations ;  this  has  particular 
significance  in  the  case  of  technical  and  scientific 
places.  In  such  cases  the  special  examinations 
are  advertised  as  widely  as  possible. 

The  Commission  has  no  means  of  anticipating 
either  the  kind  of  examination  or  the  subjects 
covered,  and  for  this  reason  it  is  impossible  to 
announce  them  in  the  Manual .  Persons  having  un- 
usual qualifications  and  desiring  to  take  a  special 
examination  should  request  the  Civil  Service  Com- 
mission to  place  their  names  on  file  against  the 


ii4     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

time  when  a  call  is  made  for  candidates.  By 
doing  so  they  will  be  notified  when  the  exami- 
nations are  held  and  will  be  given  the  privilege 
of  competing.  It  is  a  mere  gamble  as  to  how  soon 
this  will  be;  it  may  be  within  a  day  and  it  may 
be  deferred  several  years,  or  possibly  never. 

Special  examinations  are  often  confined  to 
questions  of  education  and  experience,  which  the 
competitors  must  prove  by  affidavit  and  the 
submission  of  publications  of  which  they  are 
authors,  or  other  proper  evidence. 

The  "Cut-and-Dried"  Examination. — It  is 
often  alleged  that  the  Government  makes  some 
examinations  so  difficult  that  only  few  persons 
have  any  hope  whatever  of  passing,  and  that  these 
examinations  are  designed  to  fit  certain  experts. 
This  is  true,  yet  the  bare  statement  is  misleading. 

It  is  sometimes  evident  that  certain  widely 
known  experts  are  peculiarly  qualified  to  fill  high 
positions  in  the  civil  service,  and  it  becomes  de- 
sirable for  the  Government  to  secure  their  services. 
When  this  is  the  case,  it  is  obvious  that  the  proper 
way  to  secure  them  is  by  arranging  an  examination 
fitted  to  the  exigencies  of  the  service.  In  pre- 
paring the  examination,  the  plan  followed  is  to 
make  the  tests  so  rigid  that  the  great  bulk  of 
possible  applicants  are  prevented  from  taking  the 
examination.  It  is  useless  and  time  wasted  to 
put  out  ordinary  examinations  to  fill  positions 
requiring  extraordinary  qualifications.  Having 
prescribed  the  examination,  the  matter  of  rating 


Examination  115 

and  appointing  becomes  one  of  form,  and  the 
Government  is  the  gainer. 

For  example :  Assuming  that  a  chemical  expert 
qualified  in  certain  lines  of  research  work  is  needed 
to  direct  some  investigations.  The  Civil  Service 
Commission  will  consult  with  the  head  of  the 
bureau  in  which  the  vacancy  exists  as  to  the 
requirements  of  the  position.  Having  canvassed 
the  situation  and  decided  that  a  certain  standard 
should  be  set,  an  examination  is  prepared  accord- 
ingly. Chemists  in  all  parts  of  the  country  may 
take  the  examination  and  will  receive  a  just  rating. 
Yet  it  is  manifest  that  if  a  particular  expert  take 
the  examination  other  candidates  cannot  hope 
to  attain  his  rating  owing  to  their  lack  of  his 
qualifications.  His  eligibility  and  appointment 
naturally  follow.  However,  if  the  expert  decline 
appointment  when  tendered,  it  will  go  to  the  next 
highest  eligible. 

This  method  of  securing  eligibles  is  entirely 
within  the  spirit  and  the  letter  of  the  statute.  It 
shuts  out  no  one  with  the  required  attainments, 
and  if  everybody  but  two  or  three  persons  lack 
those  attainments  that  is  not  the  Government's 
fault.  The  Government  wants  efficiency,  which 
is  the  soul  of  the  merit  system. 

Merely  scholastic  attainments  should  not  be  the 
only  considerations  in  making  appointment  to 
Federal  positions,  especially  to  the  higher  places. 
Such  qualifications  as  tact,  judgment,  and 
executive  ability,  as  well  as  the  more  personal 


u6     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

one  of  congeniality,  should  be  considered.  As 
yet  no  method  has  been  devised  by  which  these 
qualifications  can  be  graded,  and  it  is  only  in  the 
few  cases  of  high  places,  mostly  scientific  and 
technical  posts,  that  they  are  considered  at  all. 

If  it  were  possible  for  the  examiners  to  know  all 
the  applicants  personally  or  by  reputation  and 
rate  them  on  qualifications  other  than  experience 
and  academic  learning,  we  would  have  an  ideal 
system.  As  ideals  are  seldom  reached,  it  is  a 
hopeless  hope  to  anticipate  any  such  excellence; 
therefore,  the  next  best  thing  is  utilized — the 
so-called  "  cut-and-dried  "  examination.  There  is 
little  doubt  that  time  will  develop  this  method 
to  an  extent  that  the  higher  offices  will  be  filled 
quite  wholly  on  some  such  plan.  A  smoothly 
working  system  of  this  kind  would  obviate  the 
necessity  of  suspending  the  rules  in  order  to 
secure  the  services  of  a  particularly  capable  expert. 
It  would  also  instil  into  the  departments  of  the 
Government,  in  a  way  now  unattainable,  more 
of  the  elements  in  men's  being  that  make  for 
success. 

Experience  as  an  Asset. — In  the  examinations 
now  conducted  for  filling  vacancies  in  the  higher 
offices,  experience  is  given  equal  rank  with  educa- 
tion. Indeed,  this  valuable  asset  not  infrequently 
ranks  all  other  qualifications. 

Experience  is  the  master  that  brings  out  a 
man's  best;  it  teaches  him  how  to  do  his  chosen 
work  in  the  best  way  and  how  to  avoid  former 


Examination  1 1 7 

errors.  It  follows  that  the  Government  will  be 
the  gainer  in  securing  experienced  servants.  In 
stating  his  experience,  the  applicant  should  be 
careful  to  confine  himself  to  facts.  It  is  easy 
to  stretch  a  point  without  violating  conscience 
when  a  good  appointment  is  in  prospect,  as  it  is 
man's  nature  to  think  that  he  can  do  just  a  little 
more  than  he  has  ever  done.  In  dealing  with  the 
Government  he  must  prove  his  words  by  deeds. 

There  is  a  tendency  to  give  more  credit  to 
experience  than  has  been  done  in  the  past.  This 
does  not  mean  that  the  future  will  see  a  diminish- 
ing of  scholastic  requirements.  On  the  contrary, 
scholastic  requirements  will  be  raised;  but  the 
demands  for  experience  will  be  more  than  corre- 
spondingly raised.  This  statement  has  reference 
not  only  to  the  civil-service  appointments,  but  to 
the  whole  Federal  organization — legislative,  execu- 
tive, and  judicial.  In  every  branch  and  every  arm 
of  the  Government,  the  demand  for  experience  is 
growing.  This  is  in  line  with  the  trend  of  the 
times.  We  are  no  longer  pioneers  in  a  new  land. 
The  land  is  ours  and  it  takes  men  of  stamina  and 
capability  to  guide,  and  men  of  experience  in  their 
respective  spheres  to  carry  out  the  details  of  those 
who  lead. 

So  pronounced  is  the  drift  toward  experience 
that  competitors,  in  examinations  where  exper- 
ience counts  twenty-five  per  cent,  or  more  of  the 
examination,  are  marked  in  this  qualification 
before  any  rating  is  given  in  other  subjects.     If 


n8     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

they  fall  below  seventy  in  training  and  experience 
they  are  not  even  marked  in  the  other  subjects. 

Optionals. — Experience  and  the  demands  of 
appointing  officers  have  lately  developed  a  new 
plan  that  the  Commission  is  putting  into  increased 
practice,  and  the  signs  point  to  a  more  extensive 
use  of  the  scheme.  This  is  the  holding  of  a  general 
examination  with  a  thesis  on  some  chosen  subject 
as  the  basis,  then  submitting  a  long  list  of  optional 
subjects,  several  of  which  the  competitor  is  per- 
mitted to  take.  Thus,  the  Commission  might 
announce  an  examination  to  fill  high-grade  clerical 
and  minor  executive  positions,  stating  that  the 
first-grade  subjects  plus  a  thesis  shall  constitute 
the  general  examination,  but  that,  to  attain  eligi- 
bility, the  candidate  must  pass  in  one  or  more 
of  twenty  or  thirty  optional  subjects  which  the 
Commission  names.  In  this  manner  a  large  num- 
ber of  eligibles  with  a  wide  variety  of  specialties  can 
be  secured,  and  nominating  officers  may  then 
have  a  choice  list  from  which  to  make  selections. 
These  optionals  cover  a  broad  field,  such  as  chem- 
istry, civil  engineering,  bookeeping,  law,  stenogra- 
phy and  typewriting,  medicine,  mathematics, 
forestry,  editing  and  proof-reading,  library  science, 
educational  methods,  modern  languages,  and  other 
suitable  subjects. 

It  is  advisable  for  those  having  Government 
service  in  view  to  keep  their  addresses  on  file 
with  the  Civil  Service  Commission  for  circulars 
announcing   special    and   optional    examinations. 


Examination  119 

These  examinations  are  held  only  at  irregular 
intervals.  They  are  not  a  regular  thing;  but  the 
experiment  has  been  tried  with  such  success 
that  indications  point  to  a  good  future  for  the 
plan. 

In  the  Examination  Room. — A  competitor 
should  get  himself  into  as  near  perfect  physical 
condition  as  possible  before  appearing  for  exami- 
nation. The  body  should  not  be  tired  nor  the 
mind  clouded.  One  cannot  hope  to  do  his  best  with 
a  befogged  brain  and  trembling  fingers,  and  it  is 
necessary  to  bring  all  the  faculties  into  play  to 
compete  successfully  with  the  other  contestants. 

There  are  two  bad  mistakes  that  competitors 
sometimes  discover  after  they  have  presented 
themselves  for  examination.  The  one  is  lack 
of  preparation;  the  other,  haste  in  disposing 
of  the  examination.  The  necessity  for  thorough 
preparation  has  already  been  considered.  Haste 
and  carelessness  often  prove  Waterloos  for  the 
well  prepared.  There  seems  to  be  an  inherent 
tendency  in  the  average  competitor  to  hurry 
through  the  examination.  When  the  first  con- 
testant finishes  his  papers  and  leaves  the  exami- 
nation room,  it  is  a  signal  for  the  other  competitors 
to  fall  into  a  race  to  be  the  next  out.  This  is  a 
dangerous  and  often  fatal  mistake.  Ample  time 
is  given  for  answering  all  questions  and,  unless 
otherwise  specifically  stated,  time  does  not  enter 
into  the  rating  of  the  examination  papers.  It  is 
far  better  to  take  the  full  limit  of  time  in  answer- 


120     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

ing  questions  and  do  it  right  than  to  take  half 
the  time  and  lose  points  by  careless  errors. 

"Stage  fright  "  is  also  to  be  avoided,  something 
more  easily  advised  than  observed.  Many  com- 
petitors are  unable  to  give  an  intelligent  answer 
to  the  simplest  question  when  taking  a  Govern- 
ment examination,  a  condition  due  entirely  to 
excitement.  This  unfortunate  condition  is  no 
respecter  of  persons,  as  it  is  as  likely  to  attack 
the  well  prepared  as  the  unprepared. 

If  problems  of  apparently  impossible  solution 
be  encountered,  the  competitor  should  not  spend 
time  in  worrying  over  them  and  so  unfit  himself 
for  further  tests.  Instead,  let  him  pass  to  the 
next  question  and,  after  finishing  the  others,  go 
back  and  give  his  attention  to  the  stubborn 
problem  until  he  has  exhausted  the  time  allotted 
to  that  particular  subject.  Knotty  questions  are 
sometimes  easily  answered  after  the  mind  has  been 
at  work  successfully  solving  others.  It  is  certain 
that  the  mind  will  not  work  intelligently  when 
worries  and  confusion  are  crowded  into  it. 

Competitors  are  given  numbers  and  are  known 
throughout  the  examination  by  number.  At  the 
close  of  the  examination,  what  is  known  as  a 
"personal  question  sheet"  is  filled  out.  This 
sheet  contains  the  competitor's  name,  his  number, 
and.  a  few  supplemental  items  of  personal  history. 
This  sheet  is  placed  in  an  envelope,  sealed  by  the 
contestant,  and  handed  to  the  examiners.  When 
the  last  competitor  has  turned  in  his  paper,  the 


Examination  121 

examiners  seal  the  records  and  forward  them  to 
headquarters  for  rating. 

Rating  Examination  Papers. — When  a  series 
of  examination  papers  is  received  at  the  Civil 
Service  Commission,  the  papers  are  parcelled  out 
by  subjects  and  given  to  a  number  of  different 
persons  for  correction.  Thus,  papers  on  arith- 
metic would  go  to  a  mathematician,  chemistry  to 
a  chemist,  etc.  As  soon  as  a  subject  is  marked, 
the  papers  pertaining  to  it  are  turned  over  to 
another  person  for  independent  marking,  and  in 
like  manner  passed  on  to  a  third  person. 

The  examiners  are  guided  by  an  intricate  set 
of  rules  and  carefully,  closely  mark  every  paper, 
with  no  clue  to  the  identity  of  the  competitor. 
When  all  papers  have  been  marked,  they  are 
assembled  by  number,  the  envelopes  containing 
the  personal  questions  are  opened,  and,  for  the 
first  time,  the  competitors'  names  are  revealed. 
The  markings  are  now  tabulated  according  to  rank 
and  the  competitors  notified  of  their  ratings.  The 
papers  of  one  examination  are  all  marked  at  the 
same  time  and  none  made  special.  It  will  be  seen 
from  this  system  that  collusion  or  partiality  in 
rating  is  impossible. 

It  must  not  be  understood  that  the  papers  of 
all  examinations  are  rated  by  persons  connected 
with  the  Civil  Service  Commission.  In  the  case 
of  experts  and  specially  qualified  candidates,  the 
examination  papers  are  turned  over  to  a  board 
composed   of   experts   proficient   in  the   subjects 


122     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

covered  by  the  examination.  The  same  rules  for 
marking  apply  here  as  in  the  case  of  the  Civil 
Service  Corps,  inasmuch  as  the  boards  act  under 
the  direction  of  the  Commission.  This  practice 
is  not  only  a  considerable  aid  to  the  Commission's 
examining  division,  but  better  serves  the  purpose, 
as  it  takes  an  expert  to  judge  an  expert. 

Appeals  from  ratings  are  rare.  It  is  practically 
useless  to  spend  time  in  writing  the  Commission 
upon  such  subjects,  for  the  chances  of  securing 
higher  marks  are  exceedingly  remote.  If  any- 
thing, the  ratings  will  be  lowered  owing  to  the  fact 
that  the  reviewers  will  give  closer  attention  to 
the  minutest  details  of  an  appellant's  papers. 
Exception  is  sometimes  taken  to  the  system  of 
giving  credit  for  experience  and  education;  but 
in  such  instances  it  is  quite  certain  that  the  com- 
petitor had  an  exaggerated  notion  of  his  experience 
or  misinterpreted  the  questions.  The  Civil  Ser- 
vice Commission  is  at  all  times  ready  to  investi- 
gate any  complaint  from  any  source  concerning 
any  branch  of  its  work. 

Re-examination. — A  person  failing  in  an  ex- 
amination may  re-enter  the  next  examination  by 
filing  a  new  application,  but  one  who  passes  will 
not  be  permitted  to  compete  in  the  same  kind  of 
examination  within  a  year.  Re-examination  as 
a  result  of  injustice  is  permitted,  in  the  words  of 
the  Commission,  "only  in  very  exceptional  cases." 
Physical  or  mental  condition  at  the  time  of  ex- 
amination is  not  sufficient  cause.     Before  grant- 


Examination  123 

ing  a  re-examination,  the  Commission  must  be 
convinced  that  peculiar  circumstances  existed, 
the  conditions  varying  in  individual  cases. 

Disposition  of  Papers. — All  papers  in  connec- 
tion with  the  examination  of  candidates  are  held 
as  confidential  by  the  Civil  Service  Commission  and 
are  not  open  to  inspection  by  the  public.  Many 
of  the  statements  made  in  the  application  and 
personal-question  forms  are  extremely  personal 
in  their  nature,  and  it  would  be  manifestly  unjust 
to  permit  their  inspection  by  any  citizen  of  in- 
quisitive mind,  or  whose  interests  might  be  en- 
hanced by  knowledge  of  his  neighbor's  personal 
history.  The  Government  closely  guards  these 
papers. 

The  papers  of  unsuccessful  applicants  are 
destroyed  at  the  end  of  five  years,  but  those 
securing  appointment  are  held  indefinitely  in  the 
Commission's  files,  as  it  is  the  Government's 
policy  to  retain  a  complete  history  of  all  its  office- 
holders. 


CHAPTER  VII 

APPOINTMENT 

THE  kinds  of  positions  to  which  appointments 
are  made  under  the  merit  system  vary 
from  year  to  year.  Lately  about  forty  per  cent, 
of  appointments  have  been  given  to  mechanics, 
forty-five  per  cent,  to  persons  in  clerical  and  sub- 
clerical  lines,  about  twelve  per  cent,  to  skilled 
laborers,  while  only  three  per  cent,  have  gone  to 
professional,  scientific,  and  technical  candidates. 
These  figures  are  highly  elastic,  depending  upon 
the  extent  of  departmental  operations.  For 
example,  should  the  Congress  pass  a  bill  authoriz- 
ing the  United  States  Government  to  build  all 
its  battleships  and  manufacture  its  military  stores, 
the  percentage  of  appointments  to  mechanical 
trades  would  go  up  with  a  bound  to  seventy 
or  eighty  per  cent.  Conversely,  should  laws  be 
enacted  providing  that  all  work  now  done  at 
navy  yards  be  performed  by  contract,  appoint- 
ments to  mechanical  positions  would  drop  to 
almost  nil.  So  appointments  made  one  year  are 
no  index  for  the  next.  The  number  and  kind 
depend  upon  national  conditions. 

124 


Appointment  125 

Since  the  organization  of  the  civil-service 
system,  nearly  300,000  appointments  from  ex- 
amination registers  have  been  made,  equal  to 
thirty-six  per  cent,  of  those  that  passed.  This 
includes  all  branches  of  the  classified  service,  but 
not  those  covered  into  the  service  by  Executive 
Order  without  examination.  The  appointments 
to  the  classified  service  in  the  first  six  months  of 
the  operation  of  the  law  totalled  but  489;  for  the 
last  five  years  they  have  numbered  about  40,000 
annually. 

Eligibility. — Candidates  are  eligible  for  ap- 
pointment for  one  year  from  the  time  their  names 
are  entered  upon  the  register.  In  the  event  they 
have  passed  examinations  for  several  different 
kinds  of  positions,  appointment  to  any  one  of  the 
positions  cancels  eligibility  for  all  others  of  equal 
or  lower  grade;  places  of  higher  grade  are  not 
affected.  The  period  of  eligibility  may  be  ex- 
tended by  the  Civil  Service  Commission  when  it 
is  deemed  inadvisable  to  hold  new  examinations 
within  a  year.  Extension  of  eligibility  will  not 
be  granted  any  person  to  the  exclusion  of 
others. 

Certification. — By  the  term  "certification" 
is  meant  the  procedure  adopted  by  the  Civil 
Service  Commission  in  notifying  appointment 
officers  that  certain  candidates  are  eligible.  The 
Commission  merely  certifies  that  Mr.  So-and-So 
is  eligible.  The  actual  appointment  is  not  made 
by   the   Civil    Service   Commission,    but    by   the 


126     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

Secretary  of  the  Department  in  which  the  eligible 
is  to  be  employed.  Note  the  difference  between 
the  terms  "certify"  and  "appoint." 

The  Civil  Service  Commission  has  no  means  of 
knowing  when  or  where  vacancies  exist  except 
as  learned  from  the  requisitions  made  upon  it  for 
eligibles.  It  is  the  Commission's  province  to 
supply  eligibles,  not  to  hunt  places  for  eligibles. 
The  filling  of  positions  lies  entirely  within  the 
province  of  the  office  or  department  in  which  the 
vacancies  occur ;  the  department  may  or  may  not 
fill  the  vacancies,  as  circumstances  demand.  The 
Civil  Service  Commission  is  not  concerned  with 
that  responsibility. 

In  the  event  a  vacancy  occurs,  say,  in  the 
clerical  force  of  a  department,  requisition  is  made 
by  the  department  upon  the  Civil  Service  Com- 
mission for  a  clerk  having  the  necessary  qualifi- 
cations. The  Commission  selects  from  the  clerk 
register  three  names  of  the  sex  called  for,  choosing 
candidates  at  the  head  of  the  list  of  eligibles  and 
who  are  resident  in  States  entitled  to  appoint- 
ments under  the  apportionment.  The  papers  of 
these  three  eligibles  are  forwarded  to  the  depart- 
ment with  a  transcript  of  their  ratings.  The 
selection  of  one  of  the  three  eligibles  rests  with 
the  department;  any  one  of  the  three  may  be 
selected,  or  "nominated,"  as  it  is  called.  The 
other  two  names  are  sent  back  to  the  Commission 
for  restoration  to  the  register.  Having  selected  an 
eligible,  the  departmental  or  "nominating"  officer 


Appointment  127 

informs  the  candidate  of  his  selection,  naming 
the  salary  attached  to  the  place. 

This  proceeding  is  followed,  in  like  or  modified 
form,  in  all  places  under  the  merit  system.  If 
only  two  names  are  on  the  register  of  eligibles,  as 
sometimes  is  the  case,  these  two  names  are  certi- 
fied by  the  Commission ;  one  is  nominated  and  the 
other  sent  back  for  restoration  to  the  register. 
Only  one  thing  guides  the  Commission  in  making 
certifications,  and  that  is  rating.  The  time  of 
taking  an  examination  is  not  considered.  For 
instance,  a  competitor  taking  an  examination  in 
October  and  making  an  average  of  eighty-four 
will  be  certified  before  one  having  taken  the 
same  examination  in  the  preceding  March  but 
with  a  lower  rating.  It  will  thus  be  seen  that 
higher  grades  brighten  the  prospects  of  early 
certification. 

An  eligible  cannot  be  certified  more  than  three 
times  to  the  same  department,  but  he  may  be 
certified  to  other  departments  or  independent 
offices.  A  misapprehension  in  this  respect  is 
very  general,  as  it  is  widely  supposed  that  a  total 
of  but  three  certifications  can  be  made,  whereas 
the  number  may  be  many  more.  Certifications 
may  also  be  made  to  fill  positions  lower  than  that 
covered  by  the  examination,  and  this  is  by  no 
means  an  uncommon  method  of  securing  espe- 
cially well  qualified  appointees  in  the  lower 
positions. 

In  the  event  a  nominating  officer  fails  to  make 


128     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

selection  from  the  three  names  certified,  he  will 
have  to  give  good  reasons  therefor  to  the  Com- 
mission, and  this  is  not  easily  done.  The 
Commission  is  willing  to  waive  certain  technic- 
alities for  the  public  good,  but  is  particularly 
stubborn  in  cases  that  savor  of  discrimination  or 
unfairness.  Therefore,  officers  declining  to  make 
nominations  from  the  three  candidates  certified 
may  expect  to  be  asked  troublesome  questions. 

Prospect  of  Appointment. — There  is  no  way 
of  determining  with  any  degree  of  accuracy  the 
probability  of  appointment  after  successful  exam- 
ination. Appointment  depends  upon  vacancy, 
and  where  no  vacancy  exists  appointment  cannot 
be  made.  In  a  general  way,  the  competitors 
obtaining  high  ratings  have  the  best  prospects  of 
appointment,  providing  the  States  of  which  they 
are  citizens  have  not  reached  their  full  quota  of 
appointments  under  the  apportionment;  States 
that  have  had  their  full  share  of  appointments 
are  not  considered.  This  applies  to  such  posi- 
tions as  are  apportioned.  It  can  readily  be  un- 
derstood why  a  State  having  received  its  quota  of 
appointments  to  positions  in  the  Federal  service 
at  Washington  should  be  passed  over  in  favor  of 
one  to  which  appointments  are  due. 

The  registers  are  usually  well  supplied  with  eligi- 
bles  of  average  qualifications,  and  the  prospects 
of  appointment  of  such  persons  are  necessarily 
limited.  Persons  having  special  qualifications 
have  much  better  chances.     One  qualified  to  fill  a 


Appointment  129 

clerical  position,  for  example,  would  have  his 
chances  multiplied  if  he  had  a  working  knowledge 
of  stenography,  or  of  drafting,  bookkeeping,  or 
other  special  accomplishment,  though  he  could  not 
pass  in  that  additional  subject.  This  is  on  the 
principle  that  executive  officers  are  willing  to 
waive  many  of  the  requirements  demanded  of 
applicants  in  the  general  examinations  and  to 
accept  other  qualifications  in  their  place. 

It  does  not  take  a  shrewd  person  to  see  why  the 
head  of  an  engineering  or  chart-making  office  will 
prefer  a  mediocre  clerk  having  some  knowledge 
of  drafting  to  an  expert  general  clerk  having 
no  such  knowledge.  The  same  thing  applies  to 
other  special  qualifications,  instances  of  which 
are  continually  arising  in  Federal  offices.  Appoint- 
ing offices  demand  specialties,  and  the  eligible 
possessing  a  specialty  and  having  made  that  fact 
plain  in  his  application  has  much  better  prospects 
of  securing  appointment  than  his  less  fortunate 
competitor  who  secured  better  ratings  in  the 
examination  but  who  possesses  no  specialty. 

The  entrance  salary  also  has  considerable  to 
do  with  securing  appointment.  Well  qualified 
eligibles  willing  to  accept  small  entrance  salaries 
have  a  distinct  advantage  in  the  matter  of  ap- 
pointment over  those  demanding  more  for  their 
services,  a  condition  that  obtains  in  the  Govern- 
ment with  quite  the  same  force  as  in  private 
business.  One  of  the  questions  asked  in  the 
personal-question  sheet  at  the  close  of  the  exam- 


130     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

ination  is,  What  is  the  minimum  entrance  salary 
you  will  be  willing  to  accept?  Answer  to  this 
question  blights  or  brightens  the  prospect  of 
appointment.  Candidates  placing  their  minimum 
higher  than  the  average  entrance  salaries  attached 
to  the  coveted  positions  lessen  their  chances  in 
proportion  to  the  size  of  their  minimum. 

The  rilling  of  Government  positions  is  dependent 
upon  the  law  of  supply  and  demand,  as  in  com- 
mercial life.  The  greater  the  demand  for  eligibles, 
the  better  are  the  chances  of  appointment.  Con- 
siderable legislation  is  enacted  at  each  session  of 
the  Congress  whereby  more  positions  are  created. 
The  establishment  of  the  rural  free  delivery  is  a 
good  example  of  this;  it  meant  the  creation  of 
many  thousands  of  positions.  The  reclamation 
service,  under  which  come  the  irrigation  enterprises 
now  being  prosecuted,  opened  the  way  for  a  small 
army  of  engineers,  scientists,  clerks,  mechanics, 
and  laborers.  The  establishment  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Commerce  and  Labor,  with  a  consequent 
creation  of  several  new  bureaus,  required  a  large 
number  of  employes  of  all  grades  and  classes.  The 
pure  food  and  drug  legislation  provided  many 
new  places,  some  of  them  paying  handsomely. 

During  eras  of  commercial  prosperity,  the 
Government  experiences  a  great  deal  of  difficulty 
in  filling  vacancies,  especially  those  involving 
business  qualifications,  such  as  stenography  and 
typewriting,  bookkeeping,  business  methods,  en- 
gineering,   drafting,    and    kindred    subjects.     In 


Appointment  131 

hard  times,  when  many  thousands  of  this  kind 
of  employes  are  out  of  work,  the  registers  of 
eligibles  become  glutted.  It  therefore  follows 
that  eligibles  possessing  such  qualifications  have 
much  brighter  prospects  of  appointment  in  pros- 
perous times  than  when  business  is  depressed. 

Experience  is  another  factor  that  influences 
appointment.  Nominating  officers  always  prefer 
a  man  with  experience  to  one  with  theory  only. 
Persons  who  can  show  experience  and  who  possess 
good  habits,  even  temper,  and  sound  judgment 
have  better  prospects  of  securing  appointment 
than  those  lacking  these  valuable  qualifications. 

Age  of  Appointees. — Age  is  always  an  inter- 
esting topic,  especially  when  applied  to  successful 
persons.  Everybody  is  interested  in  the  man  who 
succeeds ;  after  learning  of  his  good  fortune,  there 
is  a  wish  to  know  the  age  at  which  his  success  was 
attained. 

Whether  or  not  there  is  a  relationship  between 
age  and  success  is  a  mooted  question,  both  sides 
having  numerous  arguments  with  plenty  of  ex- 
ceptions just  to  prove  the  point.  The  question 
of  age  agitated  the  framers  of  the  civil-service 
regulations  to  the  same  extent  that  it  does  men 
in  executive  capacities  everywhere.  As  the  spirit 
of  the  law  is  to  secure  the  best  material  available, 
age  limits  naturally  come  in  for  a  considerable 
share  of  attention.  Various  plans  for  limiting 
the  ages  of  applicants  have  been  tried  and  found 
wanting.     The    limitation    of    age    requirements 


132     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

has  been  found  to  exclude  so  many  desirable 
competitors  that  an  extension  was  deemed  wise; 
and  yet  the  extension  of  the  period  to  generous 
bounds  resulted  in  the  acquisition  of  poor  material 
out  of  all  proportion  to  the  number  of  capable 
employes  secured.  So  the  age  question  is  far  from 
being  settled. 

After  long  experience  and  many  trials  it  has 
been  found  that  the  period  between  twenty-one 
and  forty-five  years  is  productive  of  the  best 
results  in  appointees  to  civil-service  positions. 
The  restriction  of  ages  to  these  limits  is  by  no 
means  an  absolute  practice;  considerable  flexi- 
bility is  observed,  so  much  so  indeed  that  many 
of  the  most  desirable  assignments  provide  no  age 
requirements  at  all  for  their  filling. 

The  entrance  ages  of  appointees  vary  widely 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  work.  Masons, 
blacksmiths,  farmers  in  the  Indian  service,  and 
similar  trades  occupations  average  well  up  to 
fifty  years,  while  messenger  boys  and  apprentices 
average  slightly  over  sixteen.  The  average  age 
of  all  appointees  to  civil-service  positions  is 
twenty-eight  years,  which  is  somewhat  under  the 
average  in  commercial  life.  This  low  average  is 
brought  about  by  the  large  number  of  railway 
mail  clerks  and  stenographers  and  typewriters  ap- 
pointed whose  mean  age  at  appointment  is  about 
twenty-four  years.  Trades  positions  on  the  Isth- 
mus of  Panama,  where  the  conditions  of  climate 
and  environment  require  only  the  best  physical 


Appointment  133 

type,  show  an  average  at  appointment  of  nearly 
thirty-three  years.  The  age  of  appointees  doing  the 
same  work  in  '  'the  States  "  runs  many  years  higher. 
Appointees  to  clerical  posts  average  thirty  years, 
bookkeepers  twenty-seven  years.  Skilled  me- 
chanics, compositors,  and  technical  appointees 
enter  the  public  service  at  thirty-five  to  forty 
years  of  age.  The  simpler  the  trade  or  profession, 
the  lower  is  the  average  age  at  appointment; 
likewise  the  more  experience  necessary  in  becom- 
ing proficient  in  a  chosen  occupation,  the  higher 
the  average  entrance  age. 

The  Civil  Service  Commission  states  that  "ap- 
pointing officers,  as  a  rule,  select  the  younger 
eligibles  certified,  when  they  are  found  to  possess 
the  necessary  qualifications."  While  this  is 
undoubtedly  the  practice,  especially  proficient 
eligibles  of  well  advanced  years  need  fear  no 
discrimination  on  account  of  age  in  the  event 
they  possess  the  "necessary  qualifications,"  which, 
in  the  case  of  older  persons,  means  "additional" 
qualifications.  If  the  applicant  of  advanced 
years  has  no  special  attainments  his  hopes  are 
practically  gone. 

It  may  seem  hard  that  of  two  eligibles  of  like 
capacity  the  younger  is  almost  invariably  chosen ; 
but  it  will  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  younger  has 
proved  himself  the  equal  of  his  elder  and  that 
when  he  reaches  the  latter's  age  he  will  be  a  much 
more  valuable  man.  If  a  man  has  not  fitted 
himself  with  one  or  more  special  qualifications  by 


134     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

the  time  he  has  reached  middle  life  it  is  his  own 
fault  and  he  must  bear  the  consequences  of  his 
folly.  He  should  not  expect  preference  or  favors 
because  of  his  age  when  competing  writh  younger 
men;  his  years  should  have  brought  him  special- 
ization or  exceptional  versatility  and  made  him 
superior  to  his  younger  competitors. 

The  acquisition  of  an  education,  through  un- 
toward circumstances,  sometimes  comes  com- 
paratively late  in  life;  but  it  is  an  inflexible  rule 
that  men  of  this  stamp  are  always  winners  in 
whatever  field  they  work.  It  is  not  necessary 
for  them  to  give  the  question  of  age  a  second 
thought.  Business  and  professional  failures  some- 
times take  away  men's  hope  and  they  turn  to  the 
Government  for  a  livelihood.  These  men  are 
of  more  advanced  age  than  the  average.  Again, 
there  are  the  prodigies — the  boys  of  sixteen  or 
eighteen  who  know  as  much  and  know  it  as  well 
as  men  of  thirty  years ;  they  enter  the  service  at 
tender  years,  but  the  Government  seldom  retains 
them  long,  as  the  voice  of  the  outer  world  is  too 
loud  and  the  financial  rewards  too  promising  to  be 
ignored. 

The  sons  of  Government  employes  often  enter 
the  Federal  service,  and  when  they  do  it  is  early 
in  life.  Many  young  men  and  women  seek  public 
service  at  Washington  for  the  purpose  of  educating 
themselves ;  such  persons  are  appointed  at  eighteen 
to  twenty -two  years.  There  is  a  large  number 
of  men  from  thirty  to  forty  years  old  who  have 


Appointment  135 

tried  their  fortunes  in  various  kinds  of  work  and 
turn  to  the  Federal  service  as  a  field  offering 
pleasant  and  profitable  work  for  their  modest 
ambitions. 

Whatever  may  be  said  of  age,  merit  is  the  thing 
that  counts  always  and  invariably.  Men  of  all 
ages  enter  the  service  of  the  national  Government, 
but  do  so  on  merit;  and  when  a  man  has  ability 
and  knows  he  has  it,  he  need  not  worry  about 
his  age. 

Preference  in  Appointment. —  Under  section 
1 7  54  of  the  Revised  Statutes,  persons  honorably 
discharged  from  the  army  or  navy  on  account  of 
disability  incurred  in  line  of  duty  are  entitled  to 
certain  preferences  in  appointment.  A  candidate 
entitled  to  preference  is  required  to  attain  an 
average  of  but  sixty-five  in  examinations  instead 
of  seventy,  the  usual  passing  grade;  he  is  exempt 
from  age  conditions ;  if  eligible,  his  name  is  placed 
at  the  head  of  the  register  of  eligibles  and  certified 
first ;  and  he  is  not  subject  to  the  rules  of  apportion- 
ment. These  advantages  do  not  obtain  in  the 
case  of  promotions  and  examinations  for  the 
Philippine  service. 

The  preferences  shown  honorably  discharged 
soldiers  and  sailors  are  of  some  value  in  securing 
Federal  appointment,  a  consideration  that  is  emi- 
nently right  and  just.  However,  nominating 
officers  are  not  compelled  to  select  the  person 
who  stands  at  the  head  of  the  register  of  eligibles, 
but  may  select  any  one  of  the  three  names  certified 


136     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

by  the  Civil  Service  Commission,  and  soldiers  and 
sailors  falling  below  a  fair  percentage  are  passed 
over  in  favor  of  eligibles  with  higher  ratings  more 
often  than  they  are  chosen. 

The  preference  rights,  it  will  be  noted,  accrue 
only  to  those  discharged  on  account  of  disability 
incurred  in  line  of  duty  and  do  not  extend  to  other 
honorably  discharged  men  no  matter  how  long 
or  how  well  they  may  have  served  in  the  army 
or  the  navy.  Moreover,  those  who  are  preferred 
must  be  qualified  to  perform  the  duties  of  their 
office.  The  Government  does  not  undertake  to 
offer  appointment  to  incompetents,  whether  dis- 
abled in  line  of  duty  or  not.  So,  all  in  all, 
the  discharged  soldier  and  sailor  do  not  have  the 
advantage  popularly  supposed.  Service  in  the 
fighting  branch  is  not  regarded  by  many  as  fitting 
one  for  the  sedentary  office  positions  of  the  civil 
service.  It  is,  therefore,  advisable  for  the  appli- 
cant holding  an  honorable  discharge  from  the 
army  or  navy  not  to  depend  too  much  upon  his 
military  record  to  secure  him  appointment;  he 
will  certainly  be  called  upon  to  show  his  capacity 
in  the  same  manner  as  his  civilian  competitor. 
While  it  is  true  that  he  often  secures  a  place  by 
reason  of  his  patriotic  service,  it  must  be  under- 
stood that  here  again  merit  counts. 

Temporary  Appointment. — The  positions  in 
the  executive  civil  service  are  by  no  means  all 
permanent,  notwithstanding  a  prevalent  notion 
that   appointment   is   equivalent   to  life   tenure. 


Appointment  137 

As  in  commercial  life,  positions  in  the  Govern- 
ment service  are  many  times  temporary,  either 
distinctly  so  or  pending  their  permanent  filling; 
in  either  event  the  appointee  may  expect  to  be 
dropped  from  the  roll  at  the  expiration  of  his 
appointment  unless  new  conditions  arise  whereby 
he  is  retained. 

Successful  competitors,  especially  those  seeking 
clerical  positions,  generally  receive  a  blank  form 
from  the  Commission  relating  to  the  acceptance 
of  temporary  appointment .  When  these  forms  are 
executed  in  the  affirmative,  tender  of  temporary 
appointment  is  often  made. 

Temporary  appointment  is  not,  as  a  rule,  made 
to  persons  at  a  distance,  as  it  is  inexpedient  to 
invite  successful  applicants  to  incur  the  expense 
and  inconvenience  of  long  journeys  for  a  temporary 
assignment.  When  tenders  of  temporary  appoint- 
ment are  made  to  persons  residing  at  a  long 
distance  from  the  place  of  duty,  ultimate  per- 
manent appointment  may  be  anticipated;  this, 
however,  must  not  be  taken  as  absolute.  Cases 
have  come  up  wherein  persons  living  1 500  miles 
distant  were  taken  to  Washington  on  appoint- 
ment which  proved  only  temporary,  and  at  the 
expiration  of  a  short  assignment  they  were  dis- 
missed without  recourse.  That  this  is  a  hardship 
is  unquestionable ;  but  it  is  the  gambler's  chance. 

Persons  equipped  with  a  specialty  encounter 
fewer  risks  in  accepting  temporary  appointment 
than  those  with  ordinary  qualifications.     Thus, 


138     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

a  good  stenographer,  bookkeeper,  draftsman,  or 
technical  man  would,  under  ordinary  conditions, 
have  excellent  prospects  of  a  temporary  appoint- 
ment developing  into  a  permanent  one,  inasmuch 
as  the  man  with  a  useful  specialty  is  always  in 
demand  by  the  Government,  and  if  a  permanent 
berth  cannot  be  found  for  him  in  one  bureau  a 
place  is  waiting  elsewhere. 

Temporary  appointment  is  sometimes  accepted 
by  the  adventurous  who,  casting  fortune  with 
fate,  acts  on  the  principle  that  "a  bird  in  the  hand 
is  worth  two  in  the  bush"  and  "act  to-day,  to- 
morrow may  never  come."  This  kind  of  person 
usually  gets  along  wherever  he  is,  and  not  infre- 
quently his  boldness  in  taking  chances  wins  for 
him  what  he  otherwise  never  could  gain.  "Risk 
hath  its  gains  "  is  a  saying  as  applicable  to  Govern- 
ment appointment  as  to  any  other  calling;  for  it 
is  an  undeniable  fact  that  the  man  who  is  afraid 
to  risk  anything  rarely  mounts  higher  than  the 
ground,  and  even  there  he  may  stumble  over  his 
own  feet. 

Taking  it  all  in  all,  the  average  person — and  by 
far  the  majority  of  us  are  average — should  look 
well  to  his  steps  before  accepting  temporary 
appointment  if  living  at  a  distance  from  the  seat 
of  employment.  This  is  especially  important  for 
the  appointee  who  is  the  head  of  the  family  or 
has  persons  depending  upon  him  for  support.  In 
such  cases  the  sure  road  is  the  safest  to  travel. 

In  this  connection  it  is  well  to  add  that  tempor- 


Appointment  139 

ary  appointment  should  not  be  confused  with 
appointment  on  probation.  Probation  means 
permanency  providing  the  candidate  lives  up  to 
his  credentials,  and  there  is  no  reason  why  one 
qualified  to  pass  an  examination  should  not  do 
this,  as  is  confirmed  by  the  very  few  probational 
appointments  that  are  not  made  permanent. 
Temporary  appointment,  on  the  other  hand,  is 
never  made  on  probation,  as  the  nature  and  object 
of  probation  is  the  securing  of  permanent  service 
to  the  Government. 

Temporary  appointment  does  not  interfere 
with  permanent  appointment  should  the  candi- 
date's name  stand  high  on  the  register  of  eligibles. 
This  is  an  advantage  to  unemployed  eligibles  living 
reasonably  near  the  place  of  duty,  as  it  allows 
them  to  accept  a  position  under  the  Government 
without  jeopardizing  their  interests  in  perma- 
nency. 

Probation. — When  candidates  securing  ap- 
pointment in  the  civil  service  receive  official 
notification  of  their  selection  they  are  required 
to  report  for  duty  at  once.  They  pay  their  own 
expenses  to  the  place  of  assignment  and  their 
salary  begins  from  the  date  of  the  oath  of  office. 
The  oath  of  office  is  administered  to  all  appointees, 
and  may  be  taken  before  any  person  authorized 
to  administer  oaths,  whether  Federal  officer  or 
local  notary  public.  The  following  is  the  form 
of  oath: 

"  I,  ,  do  solemnly  swear  (or  affirm)  that   I 


14°     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

will  support  and  defend  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States  against  all  enemies,  foreign  and  domestic; 
that  I  will  bear  true  faith  and  allegiance  to  the  same ; 
that  I  take  this  obligation  freely,  without  any  mental 
reservation  or  purpose  of  evasion;  and  that  I  will 
well  and  faithfully  discharge  the  duties  of  the  office 
on  which  I  am  about  to  enter:    So  help  me  God." 

Immediately  upon  administration  of  the  oath 
of  office  the  candidate  becomes  an  office-holder 
of  the  United  States  Government,  his  appoint- 
ment usually  reading  "for  a  probational  period 
of  six  months."  To  the  uninitiated  this  proviso 
carries  disappointment,  for  it  looks  like  temporary 
appointment.  This  is  not  so;  though  it  may 
prove  temporary,  depending  upon  the  candidate 
himself.  The  probational  period  of  six  months 
is  the  last  test  of  an  applicant's  fitness  for  holding 
office.  It  sometimes,  though  rarely,  happens 
that  one  may  pass  high  in  the  written  exam- 
ination and  yet  lack  the  cardinal  qualifications 
required  of  Government  office-holders,  such  as 
industry,  good  habits,  and  discretion.  The  ap- 
pointment for  six  months  on  probation  is  designed 
to  lay  bare  any  undiscovered  faults  in  the  ap- 
pointee; that  is,  he  is  put  on  trial  for  six  months 
and,  if  found  wanting,  is  dropped  from  the  rolls 
at  the  expiration  of  that  period.  In  the  event  he 
proves  himself  up  to  the  average  in  intelligence, 
industry,  and  character  his  probational  appoint- 
ment becomes  absolute  at  the  end  of  six  months. 

Probational     appointees    are    rarely    dropped 


Appointment  141 

at  the  end  of  six  months  for  the  reason  that  the 
average  man  is  able  to  give  a  good  account  of 
himself  in  that  time.  Occasionally  one  is  found 
who  immediately  rests  upon  his  oars  the  moment 
he  has  taken  the  oath  of  office,  mistakenly  be- 
lieving that  the  Government  provides  berths 
for  those  who  pass  the  civil-service  examinations 
rather  than  those  who  are  able  to  do  the  work 
assigned  them;  his  usefulness  is  gauged  accord- 
ingly, and  he  is  warned.  If  he  be  wise,  he  heeds 
the  admonition;  if  not,  he  is  dropped  from  the 
roll  at  the  end  of  his  six  months'  probation  and 
his  place  filled  by  another  eligible. 

Probationers  not  infrequently  observe  that 
greater  diligence  and  closer  attention  to  duty  are 
apparently  required  of  them  than  of  fellow  em- 
ployes. Others  have  the  idea  that  they  know 
more  than  any  of  their  associates  and  can  do 
better  work  than  those  at  neighboring  desks. 
Some  even  go  so  far  as  to  criticise  methods  and 
persons  about  them.  Such  notions  are  the  fruit  of 
ignorance  and  inexperience,  and  lead  to  discord. 
Probationers  should  guard  themselves  against 
these  faults  and  make  every  effort  to  adjust 
themselves  to  conditions.  In  nearly  every  case 
they  will  discover  that  their  first  impressions 
were  erroneous  and  that  the  man  at  the  next  desk 
who  seemed  to  have  little  to  do  is  in  reality  one  of 
the  most  valuable  men  in  the  office. 

Having  satisfactorily  completed  his  six  months' 
probation,     absolute    appointment     follows   and 


142     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

the  employe  finds  himself  upon  the  permanent 
roll. 

Service  at  Washington  and  Elsewhere. — 
There  are  about  thirty  thousand  employes  in 
the  departments  at  Washington,  the  number 
varying  but  slightly  from  year  to  year  according 
to  the  exigencies  of  the  times.  The  rest  of  the 
immense  army  of  civil-service  workers  is  scattered 
over  the  country  and  some  are  stationed  abroad. 

The  demand  for  appointment  to  positions  at 
Washington  exceeds  many  times  over  the  number 
of  places  available.  It  is  not  saying  too  much 
to  state  that  every  Government  employe  casts 
longing  eyes  toward  the  nation's  seat  of  govern- 
ment, wishing  that  good  fortune  would  take  him 
there.  This  is  natural,  and  a  laudable  desire. 
Scarcely  one  in  ten,  however,  can  hope  to  secure 
assignment  to  Washington.  The  first  step  to- 
ward effecting  this  lies  in  specifying  such  a  desire 
in  the  "personal  question  sheet"  supplied  in  the 
examination  room;  this  may  result  in  securing 
an  assignment  at  headquarters,  but  it  is  no  guar- 
antee whatever  and  the  competitor  must  take 
his  chances.  If  an  eligible  possess  some  valuable 
specialty  he  will  have  little  or  no  trouble  in  getting 
a  Washington  detail.  Here  again  the  specialty 
comes  into  play  and  further  emphasizes  the 
desirability  of  such  an  equipment. 

The  majority  of  appointments,  in  their  nature, 
preclude  the  possibility  of  assignment  to  duty 
at    Washington.     These   places   are   included    in 


Appointment  143 

the  immigration,  internal  revenue,  life-saving, 
post-office,  and  similar  services;  also  navy  yards 
and  army  posts.  The  probability  of  persons  in 
those  services  securing  Washington  assignments 
are  exceedingly  remote. 

Many  candidates  agree  to  accept  positions  in 
various  parts  of  the  country  hoping  to  secure 
ultimate  transfer  to  Washington.  Expectations 
of  this  kind  are  the  outcome  of  ignorance  of  con- 
ditions; for,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  there  is  more 
demand  from  those  in  Government  service  at 
large  to  secure  transfer  to  Washington  than  there 
is  in  the  case  of  original  appointees.  Orders 
emanating  from  the  departments  at  Washington 
impress  the  officers  and  employes  in  local  Govern- 
ment offices,  and  nothing  is  more  reasonable  than 
that  they  should  wish  to  secure  assignment  to  de- 
partment headquarters.  The  acceptance  of  a 
place  in  a  local  office  quite  effectually  shuts  the 
doors  of  the  Washington  departments  as  does 
the  submittal  of  commonplace  accomplishments 
in  the  examination  papers.  The  probability  of 
securing  a  transfer  is  more  than  remote — it  is  in- 
finitesimal. 

It  is  advisable  for  persons  desiring  service  at 
Washington  to  equip  themselves  with  a  specialty, 
pass  an  examination,  and  specify  that  appoint- 
ment to  Washington  only  will  be  considered. 

There  are  a  number  of  reasons  that  impel 
candidates  to  seek  appointment  to  positions  in 
the  Washington  departments.     Chief  among  these 


144     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

reasons  is  the  lack  of  promotion  opportunities  in 
local  offices.  Offices  with  a  small  personnel  offer 
fewer  changes  in  staff  than  do  the  large  depart- 
mental offices.  In  addition  to  this  there  is  a 
feeling  of  segregation  which,  to  say  the  least,  is 
not  conducive  to  ambition.  The  principal  reason 
is  a  desire  to  be  in  closer  touch  with  the  national 
life,  a  condition  that  is  met  only  in  the  capital. 

Declination  of  Appointment. — An  eligible 
declining  appointment  which  meets  the  conditions 
as  to  salary  and  place  of  assignment  indicated 
by  him  in  his  application  will  be  dropped  from 
the  register  and  will  receive  no  further  tenders 
of  appointment,  unless  he  can  give  the  Commis- 
sion a  satisfactory  reason  for  declining.  In  the 
event  conditions  arise  subsequent  to  examination 
making  it  inadvisable  for  him  to  accept  appoint- 
ment under  the  terms  indicated  in  his  examination, 
the  candidate  should  at  once  notify  the  Commis- 
sion and  not  wait  until  he  has  been  tendered  a 
position.  Upon  the  receipt  of  such  information 
the  change  of  conditions  will  be  given  due  con- 
sideration by  the  Commission. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  accept  an  appointment 
at  a  salary  less  than  that  indicated  at  the  time 
of  examination  and  such  declination  will  not  bar 
the  eligible  from  further  certification.  When 
declining,  attention  should  be  invited  to  the  terms 
specified  at  the  time  of  examination.  In  all  cases, 
full  explanation  should  be  made  to  the  Civil 
Service  Commission. 


Appointment  145 

Transfer. — Persons  appointed  under  the  civil- 
service  regulations  may  be  transferred  from  one 
position  to  another  in  the  same  department,  to 
positions  in  other  departments,  and  to  places  in 
distant  cities  provided  they  have  served  three 
years  in  the  department  from  which  transfer  is 
sought.  Transfers,  however,  cannot  be  made 
from  the  unclassified  service  to  the  classified  ser- 
vice, or  from  a  lower  to  a  higher  grade,  or  in  any 
case  where  the  entrance  examination  is  of  a  more 
advanced  character  than  that  taken  by  the  persons 
to  be  transferred. 

Examinations  are  sometimes  required  of  ap- 
plicants for  transfers,  but  not  in  all  cases;  the 
Civil  Service  Commission  decides  upon  the  eligi- 
bility of  an  applicant.  Tests  of  fitness  are  gener- 
ally demanded  by  the  office  to  which  transfer 
is  sought,  for  the  primary  object  in  filling  positions 
by  transfer  is  to  secure  persons  particularly  com- 
petent to  do  the  work  and  to  profit  by  the  training 
received  in  other  Government  offices.  These 
tests  of  fitness  usually  take  the  trend  of  actual 
work  for  a  day  or  two  in  the  office  to  which  trans- 
fer is  sought. 

Considerable  misunderstanding  exists  at  pres- 
ent among  Government  employes  concerning  the 
proper  methods  of  securing  a  transfer.  A  quite 
wide-spread  idea  obtains,  particularly  with  new 
appointees,  that  it  is  only  necessary  to  file  an  appli- 
cation for  transfer  and  that  the  same  will  be  made 
in  due  time.     Such  a  proceeding  is  a  waste  of  hope . 


146      Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

When  seeking  a  transfer  the  first  thing  to  do 
is  to  ascertain  whether  a  vacancy  exists  in  the 
office  to  which  transfer  is  desired;  without  a 
vacancy  no  transfer  or  appointment  can  be  made. 
If  a  vacancy  exist  there  is  little  doubt  that  efforts 
will  be  made  to  fill  it  by  promotion.  In  the  event 
it  is  impracticable  to  fill  the  place  by  promotion 
it  will  be  filled  either  by  transfer  of  some  one  from 
another  office  or  through  original  appointment. 
Having  ascertained  that  the  place  will  not  be 
filled  by  promotion,  it  is  proper  to  make  formal 
application  for  transfer,  filing  with  this  letter  of 
application  a  full  personal  history  citing  the 
various  accomplishments  had  by  the  applicant 
and  furnishing  substantial  references,  including 
in  all  cases  that  of  the  head  of  the  bureau  where 
at  present  employed.  If  the  proper  qualifications 
are  expressed  in  the  application  and  good  refer- 
ences given  it  will  probably  result  in  a  reply  re- 
questing the  applicant  to  present  himself  for  a 
personal  interview  with  the  executive  officer  in 
the  office  where  the  vacancy  exists.  If  the  appli- 
cant make  as  favorable  an  impression  at  the  in- 
terview as  in  his  letter  of  application,  some  kind 
of  an  understanding  will  be  reached  looking  to  his 
transfer. 

Up  to  this  point  in  the  proceeding  the  applicant 
has  been  the  moving  spirit.  The  remainder  of 
the  transaction  rests  with  the  office  in  which  the 
vacancy  exists ;  neither  the  person  seeking  transfer 
nor  the  office  from  which  he  is  to  be  transferred 


Appointment  147 

need  be  consulted  in  regard  to  the  matter.  In- 
stead, the  department  holding  the  vacancy  makes 
inquiry  of  the  Civil  Service  Commission  as  to  the 
applicant's  eligibility  for  transfer;  upon  receipt 
of  a  satisfactory  answer  a  formal  requisition  is 
made  upon  the  Civil  Service  Commission  for  the 
person's  transfer.  The  department  from  which 
transfer  is  made  is  apprised  of  the  requisition  and, 
as  soon  as  the  transfer  is  approved,  the  applicant 
for  the  first  time  is  officially  notified. 

The  question  may  be  asked  at  this  point,  How 
am  I  to  know  when  and  where  a  suitable  vacancy 
exists?  There  is  but  one  way  to  ascertain  this, 
and  that  is  by  inquiry.  When  a  vacancy  occurs 
some  one  in  the  office  where  it  exists  is  almost 
sure  to  have  a  friend  whom  he  desires  to  favor 
and  loses  no  time  in  seeing  that  friend.  The 
friend  then  acts  on  the  lines  just  indicated.  The 
existence  of  desirable  vacancies  is  usually  kept 
so  secret  that  persons  on  the  outside  do  not  hear 
of  them  until  they  have  been  filled. 

The  most  systematic  way  to  go  about  getting  a 
transfer  is  to  scan  the  estimates  prepared  by  the 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  which  are  printed  in 
the  autumn  before  the  Congress  convenes,  noting 
the  additional  employes  requested  by  the  various 
Government  offices  in  all  parts  of  the  United 
States.  Having  selected  a  number  of  desirable 
prospective  vacancies,  the  congressional  legisla- 
tion looking  to  a  creation  of  the  plrces  should  be 
closely   followed.     As   soon   as   any   of   the  new 


148     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

places  are  authorized  the  matter  of  a  transfer 
should  be  taken  up  with  the  office  affected  by  the 
new  legislation;  lack  of  promptness  at  this  time 
may  result  in  failure  to  secure  transfer.  By 
instituting  a  vigorous  campaign  of  inquiry  desir- 
able positions  can  sometimes  be  located. 

It  will  be  observed  from  the  manner  of  securing 
transfers  that  the  department  or  office  from  which 
transfer  is  sought  has  little  or  nothing  to  say  about 
the  proceeding  and  that  it  has  no  recourse  in  the 
event  another  department  calls  for  an  employe's 
transfer.  This  has  proved  unfortunate  for  some 
offices  which,  through  poor  pay  or  unattractive 
conditions,  have  lost  many  of  the  most  efficient 
employes  through  transfer.  Certain  bureaus  of 
the  War  Department  and  the  Navy  Department, 
in  particular,  have  been  heavy  losers  through 
this  drain  of  employes  who,  having  received 
training  there,  have  been  transferred  to  other 
departments. 

The  practice  of  Government  departments  com- 
peting against  each  other  for  the  services  of 
desirable  employes  by  inducements  of  higher 
salaries  has  been  partly  remedied  by  a  law  en- 
acted in  1906  providing  that  no  employe  shall 
be  eligible  for  transfer  until  he  shall  have  served 
three  years  in  the  department  from  which  he 
seeks  transfer;  the  law  does  not  interfere  with 
transfers  from  one  office  to  another  in  the  same 
department.  Prior  to  the  passage  of  this  law 
the  transfer  question  was  a  serious  problem  for 


Appointment  149 

some  offices,  which  served  as  training  schools  for 
other  departments. 

Reinstatement. — Reinstatement  may  be  made 
to  a  position  vacated  within  one  year,  provided 
the  place  is  still  open  and  that  the  person  formerly 
holding  it  was  honorably  separated  from  the 
service.  As  in  the  case  of  transfer,  reinstate- 
ment cannot  be  made  where  no  vacancy  exists. 
Thus,  if  a  person  resign  from  a  Government 
position  and  another  person  is  appointed  to  fill 
the  vacancy,  reinstatement  cannot  be  made.  If, 
however,  the  successor  be  promoted  or  another 
vacancy  of  the  same  kind  occur  in  the  office, 
reinstatement  may  be  effected. 

All  that  is  necessary  in  the  case  of  reinstate- 
ment is  for  the  applicant  to  address  a  letter  to  the 
head  of  the  office  from  which  he  was  separated 
stating  that  he  desires  to  be  reinstated  and  citing 
his  reasons  therefor.  His  name  will  then  be  kept 
on  file  in  the  office  for  reference  in  the  event  of 
vacancy  and  the  office  will  have  a  double  advan- 
tage in  being  saved  the  delay  in  filling  the  place 
through  certification  by  the  Civil  Service  Com- 
mission and  in  securing  an  employe*  who  is  familiar 
with  the  work.  Application  should  not  be  made 
to  the  Civil  Service  Commission,  nor  to  any  other 
office  than  that  in  which  the  person  was  formerly 
employed,  inasmuch  as  appointment  to  any  other 
office  would  be  original  appointment  and  not  a 
reinstatement. 

Reinstatements  are  not  as  numerous  as  might 


i5°     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

be  supposed.  Civil-service  employes  well  know 
that  the  Government  is  a  sure  and  steady  pay- 
master in  hard  times  as  in  prosperous  ones,  and 
they  think  twice  before  surrendering  a  position. 
When  an  employe  does  resign  he  has  usually  laid 
pretty  good  plans  for  success  elsewhere  and  so 
will  not  need  reinstatement. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

SALARIES 

WHATEVER  is  done  is  for  pay.  Whether 
one  work  or  rest,  payment  in  some  form 
is  expected.  The  man  on  vacation  expects  pay- 
ment in  the  form  of  health  or  recreation,  the 
housewife  looks  for  payment  in  the  joys  of  a 
well-kept  home,  the  merchant  behind  the  counter 
receives  money  for  his  wares,  the  man  at  the 
desk  sells  his  services.  Remuneration  is  a  fixed 
principle,  and,  as  it  involves  self,  it  is  necessarily 
an  interesting  question. 

Money  has  no  intrinsic  value,  being  merely 
a  representative  of  value;  man  cannot  eat  it 
or  keep  his  body  warm  with  it,  but  he  may  ex- 
change it  for  food  and  raiment.  Therefore,  he 
is  willing  to  put  himself  to  inconvenience  and 
distress  to  possess  himself  of  it.  The  selling  of 
service  antedates  the  invention  of  money.  It 
is  a  custom  lost  in  antiquity  and  everywhere 
recognized  as  honorable,  and  it  forms  the  basis 
of  progress. 

Salary  is  a  relative  term  and  one  that  is  ex- 
tremely elastic.  The  high  salary  paid  for  a  man's 
services  may  be  the  merest  pittance  compared 

151 


152     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

with  their  actual  value;  and  it  is  safe  to  say 
that  one  rarely  gets  what  he  is  worth.  If  the 
wage-earner  received  what  his  services  are  worth 
his  employer  would  have  no  profit,  and,  therefore, 
would  have  no  incentive  to  give  employment. 
It  is  the  employer's  prospect  of  making  a  profit 
off  every  employe  that  forms  a  cardinal  principle 
in  the  nation's  prosperity. 

Natural  resources  in  themselves  make  no 
nation  great  or  rich.  Iron,  coal,  and  gold  would 
lie  forever  in  the  earth  were  it  not  for  labor's 
hand.  Yet  the  man  that  performs  the  actual 
work  of  making  the  nation's  wealth  is  the  one 
who  receives  the  least  for  it;  he  receives  a  fixed 
wage,  his  employer  takes  the  profit.  Men  do 
not  get  rich  by  working  for  wages,  whether 
they  be  $1.00  or  $100.00  a  day;  it  is  only  by 
investing  the  savings  from  that  $1.00  or  $100.00 
a  day,  and  so  participating  in  the  profits  and 
labor  of  other  wage-earners,  that  anyone  can 
hope  to  acquire  more  than  a  mere  living.  The 
commercial  value  of  service  fluctuates  daily;  in 
times  of  prosperity,  when  everybody  spends 
money,  wages  rise;  in  times  of  stringency  they 
contract' — all  due  to  the  profits  employers  can 
make.  And  this  taking  of  profit  on  the  wage- 
earner's  labor  is  right  in  principle  and  right  in 
practice.  It  is  the  foundation  of  business.  What- 
ever theories  socialism  may  advance,  individual- 
ism has  proved  its  value  in  the  commercial 
world. 


Salaries  153 

The  fluctuation  of  wages  in  accordance  with 
the  law  of  supply  and  demand  is  a  fact  well  fixed 
in  the  people's  mind;  it  is  not  expected  that  the 
same  remuneration  for  the  same  class  of  work 
will  obtain  for  an  indefinite  period.  If  it  did, 
there  would  be  little  use  for  savings  banks  and 
investment  companies,  inasmuch  as  the  wage- 
earner  would  spend  all  his  earnings  against  a 
like  income  next  year.  There  must  be  a  relation 
between  the  wage  received  and  the  buying  power 
of  that  wage.  When  wages  advance,  the  buying 
power  of  a  dollar  declines  in  proportion;  when 
they  decline,  a  dollar  will  buy  more.  This  prin- 
ciple is  recognized  by  the  business  and  the  labor 
world.  Labor  unions  regulate  their  scales  of 
wages  according  to  the  buying  power  of  a  dollar ; 
employers  accordingly  regulate  the  prices  of 
the  goods  they  sell,  that  they  may  make  their 
profit. 

However  widely  this  is  recognized  throughout 
the  country,  the  Government  is  not  guided  by 
it  in  its  wage  relations  with  its  employes.  The 
Federal  employe  receives  the  same  pay  whether 
wages  in  general  are  high  or  low;  in  times  of 
commercial  prosperity,  when  the  necessities  of 
life  are  expensive,  he  is  at  a  disadvantage.  Con- 
versely, in  times  of  business  depression,  when 
the  buying  power  of  a  dollar  is  highly  increased, 
the  public  employe  reaps  the  benefit.  From 
this  it  will  be  seen  that  the  Government  em- 
ploye is  prosperous  when  the  country  at  large  is 


154     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

depressed,  and  vice  versa.  The  natural  state  of 
the  nation  is  one  of  prosperity;  the  office-holder, 
therefore,  must  receive  a  higher  wage  than  is 
paid  for  similar  work  in  the  commercial  world 
that  he  may  live  in  accordance  with  his 
station. 

The  salary  of  the  Federal  employe*  comes  in 
for  a  great  deal  of  attention  by  the  public.  The 
popular  conception  makes  the  income  either 
"fat"  or  "lucrative":  the  President  receives  a 
"lucrative"  salary;  the  departmental  clerk — who, 
by  the  way,  is  always  an  "  official  "—gets  a 
"fat  "  salary.  The  notion  of  exorbitant  pay 
for  public  employes  originated  in  the  early  days 
of  our  Government,  when  the  purchasing  power 
of  a  dollar  was  much  more  than  it  is  to-day. 
Practically  all  the  salaries  paid  by  the  Govern- 
ment are  scaled  according  to  those  paid  long 
before  the  Civil  War.  In  no  sense  of  the  word 
have  they  kept  pace  with  or  even  closely  followed 
the  relative  increase  of  wages  paid  in  the  business 
world.  Had  they  done  so  the  clerk  who  now 
receives  $100  a  month  would  receive  $200,  and 
the  bureau  chief  who  receives  $5000  a  year 
would  receive  double  that  amount. 

Salaries  paid  by  the  Government  may  be 
grouped,  for  convenience,  into  two  great  classes, 
viz.,  (1)  those  paid  the  higher  officials,  and  (2) 
those  paid  employes,  who  constitute  over  nine- 
tenths  of  the  whole  number  on  the  Federal  pay- 
roll.    The   "higher  officials"   occupy  such  posts 


Salaries  155 

as  senator,  representative,  cabinet  officer,  sec- 
retary of  a  department,  chief  of  bureau,  judge, 
attorney,  member  of  a  commission,  and  principal 
executive  officer.  All  the  others  come  under  the 
head  of  employes. 

In  a  general  survey  of  Government  salaries 
compared  with  those  paid  for  similar  require- 
ments in  business  life  two  facts  strike  the  observer 
with  force.  One  is,  that  the  pay  of  Group  No.  1, 
or  what  are  here  termed  the  higher  officials,  is 
much  less  than  that  paid  for  parallel  talent  in 
foreign  governments  and  in  commercial  life. 
This  under  payment  begins  with  the  department 
chief  clerks  and  increases  in  rapid  proportion  in 
passing  up  the  line  to  bureau  chiefs,  assistant 
secretaries  of  departments,  United  States  attor- 
neys, judges  of  circuit  and  district  courts,  first 
and  second  class  postmasters,  diplomats,  rep- 
resentatives, senators,  judges  of  the  supreme 
court,  and  lastly  the  President. 

Foreign  powers,  some  of  them  small  powers 
at  that,  pay  their  rulers  millions  without  a  mur- 
mur, whereas  the  President  of  the  United  States 
receives  but  $50,000 — less  than  many  private 
corporations  pay  their  executive  heads  who  have 
less  ability  and  less  responsibility  than  the  gov- 
ernor of  one  of  our  small  States. 

The  civil  list  of  Great  Britain's  ruler  is 
$2,284,200,  the  Emperor  of  Germany  receives 
$3,143,859,  annually,  and  the  President  of  France 
$228,000;    the  King  of  Greece,  one  of  Europe's 


156     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

small  countries,  receives  in  one  year  more  than 
our  President  does  in  a  whole  term  of  office, 
as  he  gets  $260,000.  Such  salaries  make  the 
remuneration  of  our  chief  executive  look  small 
indeed.  A  plan  is  now  before  the  Congress  to 
increase  the  salary  of  the  President  to  $100,000  a 
year,  and  it  is  highly  probable  this  will  become  a 
law  in  the  very  near  future  ;  but  even  this  figure 
is  far  from  munificent. 

If  paid  according  to  the  riches  of  this  country 
and  in  a  class  with  powers  like  Great  Britain, 
Germany,  or  France,  the  President  of  the 
United  States  should  receive  at  least  $500,000  a 
year,  the  vice-president  $75,000,  cabinet  officers 
$50,000,  members  of  the  Congress  and  senators 
$25,000,  and  heads  of  bureaus  $15,000;  army 
and  navy  officers  should  receive  from  $50,000  for 
the  highest  rank  to  $3000  for  the  lowest  commis- 
sioned officer. 

High  places  in  the  business  world  command 
princely  sums,  but  the  Government  does  not  even 
approach  par  in  the  matter  of  salaries  for  high 
officials  when  compared  with  the  money  rewards 
in  commercial  institutions.  This  is  a  rich  nation; 
the  country  is  overflowing  with  natural  wealth 
and  teeming  with  millionaires,  yet  the  men  who 
are  responsible  for  good  administration  receive 
mere  pittances  in  comparison  with  what  they 
are  worth  and  with  what  business  concerns  are 
willing  to  pay  them.  There  is  scarcely  a  head 
of    any    Government    bureau    or    principal    ad- 


Salaries  157 

ministrative  officer  who  could  not  go  immediately 
into  the  service  of  a  corporation  at  double  his 
Federal  salary.  Indeed,  commercial  and  financial 
houses  are  continuously  making  offers  to  Gov- 
ernment officials  and  in  many  cases  securing 
their  services. 

Here,  then,  we  have  an  altogether  unique 
condition  and  one  which  elicits  the  question, 
If  this  be  so,  why  do  men  of  recognized  ability 
seek  Government  office  in  preference  to  business 
careers?  Several  answers  suggest  themselves, 
depending  upon  the  individual  viewpoint.  From 
all  the  possible  answers  one  fact  stands  out  con- 
spicuously and  with  unfailing  clearness:  Our 
country  has  a  supply  of  men,  capable  and  pa- 
triotic, who  rightly  concede  that  the  citizen's 
first  duty  is  to  his  Government,  not  to  gold.  This 
is  a  matter  for  national  congratulation,  par- 
ticularly so  in  view  of  the  commercial  trend  of 
the  times.  As  for  the  officials,  the  holding  of 
a  Government  post  carries  with  it  honor  and 
prestige,  and  there  is  considerable  satisfaction 
and  righteous  pride  in  knowing  that  one  has 
something  to  do  with  shaping  a  great  nation's 
destiny. 

When  we  come  to  the  second  grouping  of 
salaries,  viz.,  the  nine-tenths  who  are  called  for 
convenience  "employes,"  there  is  a  different 
story  to  tell.  The  average  salary  of  this  ninc- 
tenths  is  considerably  higher  than  that  paid  for 
similar    service    in    commercial    establishments. 


158     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

There  are  many,  of  course,  who  receive  less  than 
they  could  get  elsewhere  and  others  who  get 
much  more  than  any  private  concern  would  be 
willing  to  pay  them. 

This  class  comprises  the  vast  army  of  clerks, 
minor  officials,  mechanics,  messengers,  watchmen 
and  laborers,  inspectors,  examiners,  agents,  mem- 
bers of  scientific  bureaus,  and  miscellaneous 
employes.  These  employes  are  paid  salaries 
ranging  from  $240  to  $2000  a  year;  their  positions 
are  as  a  rule  held  for  life  or  during  good  behavior ; 
they  have  been  appointed  through  competitive 
examination,  and  enjoy  all  the  privileges  and 
rights  accruing  under  the  civil-service  law. 
Their  average  annual  salary  is  approximately 
$1200. 

While  it  is  true  that  Government  employes 
receive  a  higher  average  wage  than  is  paid  for 
similar  service  elsewhere,  the  requirements  de- 
manded of  them  are  more  exacting  than  in  business 
occupations.  Ordinarily  the  business  man  ac- 
cepts the  service  of  any  man  who  can  do  his 
work  satisfactorily  and  his  interest  goes  no  farther ; 
the  employe  may  be  what  he  will  or  do  as  he 
pleases  outside  of  working  hours,  he  may  have 
high  ideals  or  be  utterly  lacking  in  manhood. 
An  honest  day's  work  is  expected  of  the  mechanic 
and  nothing  more,  the  shop-keeper's  interest 
in  his  clerks  ends  when  the  shutters  are  put  up 
at  night,  the  office  manager  gauges  his  men  by  the 
accuracy  and  speed  with  which  they  perform  the 


Salaries  159 

duties  assigned  them,  the  editor  is  concen 
with  his  employes  just  so  far  as  they  arc  able 
to  gather  and  write  up  news.  The  average 
employer  cares  nothing  for  his  hired  men  or 
women,  looking  upon  them  merely  as  commercial 
propositions  out  of  which  to  make  profit.  The 
employer  is  bluntly  candid  in  admitting  this, 
but  he  is  not  to  blame  more  than  the  employe, 
whose  interest  in  his  employer  quite  generally 
ends  with  the  pay  envelope.  There  is  little 
interest  found  between  employer  and  employe^ 
little  sympathy,  little  regard  for  each  other, 
little  real  co-operation.  And  there  is  nothing 
particularly  wrong  with  it;  it  is  simply  business. 
The  relationship  between  employer  and  employe" 
is  based  entirely  upon  commercial  reasons,  the 
whole  matter  resolving  itself  into  a  question  of 
profits. 

The  Government  does  not  look  at  it  this  way. 
The  Government  is  not  conducted  as  a  money- 
making  institution;  it  is  administered  in  the 
people's  interests.  Hence,  there  is  no  incentive 
to  pay  its  servants  a  minimum  wage  for  a  maxi- 
mum amount  of  labor.  It  follows  that  the  profit 
that  accrues  to  the  commercial  employer  has 
no  place  in  the  Government's  reckoning  with 
its  employe.  For  this  reason  the  civil-service 
employe  has  a  financial  advantage  over  the  one 
in  commercial  life  so  far  as  mere  salary  is  con- 
cerned. 

Beginning  at  the  bottom  of  several  prominent 


160     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 


groups  of  employes  and  comparing  them  with 
parallel  groups  in  commercial  life  the  differences 
may  readily  be  appreciated  by  a  glance  at  the 
following  table : 


Annual  compensation  in 

Groups 

Government 

Private  business 

Laborers,     i.e.,     re- 

quiring no  qualifi- 

cations other  than 

$  420  to  $720 

$  240  to  $600 

Mechanics 

720  to  1400 

600  to  1200 

Junior    clerical    po- 

sitions  

600  to  IOOO 

300  to     720 

Senior     clerical     po- 

sitions  

1200  to  1800 

900  to  1200 

Minor     executive 

positions, — chief 

clerk,  office  man- 

ager,       inspector, 

1800  to  3000 

1200  to  1800 

Junior  scientists. .  .  . 

720  to  1200 

720  to  IOOO 

Senior        "           .... 

1200  to  5000 

1200  up. 

Clerical  and  minor  executive  places  have  a 
special  advantage  in  salary  over  similar  places 
in  business  life.  When  a  clerk  in  the  business 
office  reaches  the  dignity  of  a  $1200  salary, 
considerable  more  than  mere  clerical  work  is 
expected  of  him  ;  whereas,  the  $1200  clerk  in 
the  Government  office  is  only  fairly  paid.  In 
respect  to  duties  and  responsibilities,  the  work 
of  the  $1800  Government  clerk  compares  with 
that  of  the  $1200  man  in  business  life. 

While  this  superior  salary  appears  to  be  a 
decided  asset  in  favor  of  the  civil-service  clerk, 


Salaries  161 

it  is  his  all.  The  nature  of  Federal  work  prevents, 
with  rare  exceptions,  employes  from  being  brought 
into  close  business  relations  with  the  commercial 
world.  Public  employes  unfortunately  escape 
the  hard  knocks  in  business  life  that  count  for 
personal  monetary  success.  There  are  to-day 
hundreds  of  Government  employes  who,  had 
they  been  trained  in  the  commercial  office  instead 
of  in  the  Federal  bureau,  would  own  a  thriving 
business;  as  it  is,  they  have  only  a  fair  income 
assured  for  life.  While  no  one  can  suppose  that 
all  employes  in  the  world  of  trade  would  succeed 
as  business  men,  the  chances  are  there  for  those 
who  are  adapted  to  money-making;  in  the  Gov- 
ernment the  opportunities  for  money-making  are 
practically  nil. 

Ordinarily  public  employes  are  slow  to  resign 
to  enter  business  for  there  is  a  strong  tendency, 
an  almost  unavoidable  circumstance  ever  present, 
that  peculiarly  unfits  men  in  Government  service 
for  taking  up  the  responsibilities  of  commercial 
life.  The  young  man  starting  out  in  life  views 
the  Government  employe  with  envy  because 
the  latter  receives  more  salary  than  appears 
consistent  with  relative  conditions;  but  his  lack 
of  experience  prevents  him  observing  that  the 
lists  are  open  in  the  commercial  world  to  all  but 
the  Federal  employ e\  Therefore,  it  is  only  right 
and  fair  that  the  man  who  gives  up  his  chances 
on  the  commercial  battlefield  for  a  Government 
career  should   receive   better  pay  than  he  who 


162     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

may  grasp  opportunities  to  enrich  himself.  There 
should  be  compensation  for  loss  of  opportunity. 

In  eras  of  unusual  prosperity  when  wages  and 
salaries  in  the  business  world  rise  beyond  their 
natural  limits,  Government  employes  find  less 
encouragement  in  their  compensation.  In  such 
times  resignations  to  enter  corporate  employ  are 
numerous  owing  to  offers  of  better  pay,  the  best 
clerks  and  employes  naturally  having  the  ad- 
vantage. 

The  Director  of  the  Census  says  l:  "Frequent 
changes  occur  in  the  personnel  of  this  force,  and 
it  is  a  noteworthy  fact  that  those  clerks  who 
drop  out  are  largely  from  the  class  whom  the 
office  can  ill  afford  to  lose.  Their  special  training 
in  the  methods  of  statistical  work  and  their 
aptitude  in  this  work  win  for  them  positions  in 
private  life  where  the  emolument  is  larger  than 
the  Government  is  willing  to  pay,  and  the  op- 
portunities for  advancement  are  more  frequent. 
It  so  happens,  then,  that  the  office  is  losing  clerks 
who  were  retained  in  the  permanent  organization 
because  of  their  special  qualifications,  and  it  is 
not  possible  to  supply  their  places  from  the 
regular  registers  of  the  Civil  Service  Commission." 

The  Quartermaster-General 2  also  deprecates 
this  condition  in  the  following  words:  "A  good 
man's  services  are  certainly  worth  as  much  to  the 
Government  as  to  a  commercial  concern,  and  it 

>  Report  Director  of  Census  for  1904-05,  p.  18. 

2  Annual  Report,   Quartermaster-General,  U.  S.  A.,   1905. 


Salaries 


163 


ought  to  be  possible  to  pay  such  enough  to  retain 
them;  there  is  no  trouble  about  the  indifferently 
qualified  ones  remaining  in  the  service."  It  will 
be  noted  that  only  the  best  employes  are  called 
into  private  service,  a  broad  hint  to  those  satisfied 
with  mediocre  ability. 

High  Federal  officials,  few  of  whom  are  rich, 
are  usually  in  comfortable  circumstances.  A 
large  proportion  have  business  interests  and  are 
not  dependent  upon  the  Government  for  their 
sole  income.  The  big  army  of  employes,  on  the 
contrary,  have  nowhere  but  the  Government  to 
look  to  for  their  livelihood;  few  of  them  have 
private  incomes  sufficiently  large  to  enable  them 
to  live  independently  of  the  Government. 

The  following  shows  the  percentage  of  employes 
holding  competitive  positions  in  each  salary  class. 
The  percentages  may  vary  slightly  from  year  to 
year,  but  it  is  unlikely  that  any  wide  variation 
will  occur ;  for,  according  to  the  present  conditions 
of  the  civil  service,  the  equilibrium  seems  to  be 
well  maintained : 


Class 

Percentage  of 

Class 

Percentage  of 

employes 

employes 

A 

190% 

1 

9-o% 

B 

ii.7% 

2 

5 

0% 

C 

5.7% 

3 

1 

8% 

D 

23-6% 

4 

1 

6% 

E 

18.4% 

5 

1 

2% 

6 

1 

0% 

Piecework 

1.0% 

164     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

Whatever  the  size  of  the  public  employe's 
salary,  whether  $1.00  a  day  or  $50,000  a  year, 
it  is  a  matter  of  public  knowledge.  The  name  of 
every  employe  is  entered  in  the  Official  Register, 
commonly  called  The  Blue  Book,  together  with 
the  title  of  his  position  and  the  amount  of  his 
compensation.  This  Blue  Book  is  published 
in  two  large  volumes  and  reference  to  it  will 
disclose  the  salary  paid  your  best  friend  or  worst 
enemy.  Owing  to  the  practice  of  publishing 
salaries  it  is  useless  for  the  Federal  employ6  to 
lie  about  the  salary  he  receives,  as  is  sometimes 
done  in  private  employment  when  it  is  desirable 
to  have  it  appear  that  a  salary  is  larger  than  it 
really  is.  Business  men  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Federal  offices  are  not  slow  to  familiarize  them- 
selves with  the  true  income  of  public  employes 
seeking  to  establish  a  line  of  credit  with  them. 
There  are  advantages  and  disadvantages  in  this 
system.  One  advantage  is,  the  public  employe 
is  prevented  from  living  beyond  his  means. 
The  principal  objection  lies  in  the  tendency  to 
make  salaries  a  topic  of  social  talk  in  com- 
munities where  numbers  of  Federal  employes  are 
stationed. 

Entrance  Salaries. — Under  the  civil-service 
regulations  of  many  foreign  governments  entrance 
to  public  posts  is  only  made  at  the  lowest  salaries 
of  the  various  classes,  the  higher  places  being 
filled  entirely  by  promotion.  This  system  obtains 
in  our  civil  service  only  to  a  limited  extent.     A 


Salaries  165 

few  bureaus  make  it  a  practice;  but  owing  to 
varied  conditions  it  is  not  found  practicable  in 
all  instances.  A  strong  tendency,  however,  is 
developing  to  adjust  affairs  and  make  it  possible 
as  a  regular  procedure. 

Appointment  at  low  pay  and  promotion  up 
the  line  seems  to  be  in  accord  with  the  spirit  of 
the  merit  system.  One  of  the  causes  that  makes 
this  practice  inapplicable  is  the  wide  variation 
in  entrance  salaries  for  the  same  class  of  work. 
Some  offices,  for  example,  start  their  clerical 
staff  as  low  as  $600  a  year,  while  other  offices 
start  their  appointees  at  a  minimum  of  $900 
for  similar  work.  As  promotions  usually  rise 
by  increments  of  $120  or  $200  a  year  it  would 
take  an  appointee  at  $600  some  time  to  reach 
the  entrance  salary  of  $900  accorded  his  more 
lucky  competitor. 

Relative  examination  ratings  have  nothing  to 
do  with  entrance  salaries,  as  seems  commonly 
to  be  understood.  Thus,  one  of  two  competitors 
in  a  given  examination  may  attain  a  rating  of 
85  and  the  other  80.  The  one  making  85  may 
have  expressed  his  willingness  to  accept  an 
entrance  salary  as  low  as  $720  a  year,  while  the 
other  stipulated  $900  as  his  minimum.  Appoint- 
ment would  be  made  accordingly,  the  lower  grade 
man  securing  a  much  better  entrance  salary. 
Or,  competitors  A,  B,  and  C,  each  with  a  rating 
of  80,  may  be  certified  by  the  Civil  Service  Com- 
mission to  an  office  where  the  entrance  salary  is 


1 66     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

$720  a  year.  The  appointing  officer  selects  A 
for  appointment.  B  and  C  are  sent  back  to  the 
Commission  and  restored  to  the  list  of  eligibles. 
Another  office  calls  for  three  eligibles.  B  and  C, 
with  D  the  third  highest  eligible,  are  certified  for 
the  position,  which  pays  an  entrance  salary  of 
$900  a  year.  B  is  chosen.  In  like  manner  C 
may  be  certified  to  a  place  paying  $1000  a  year 
to  begin,  or  as  low  as  $600  a  year. 

It  will  be  seen  from  this  that  entrance  salary 
is  largely  a  matter  of  chance.  If  a  vacancy  occur 
in  an  office  paying  $900  as  a  minimum  entrance 
salary,  certification  will  be  made  to  that  office 
from  the  list  of  eligibles  signifying  their  willingness 
to  accept  that  salary.  It  is  here  that  the  method 
of  making  appointments  is  weak.  It  is  manifestly 
unjust  that  one  candidate  be  appointed  in  an 
office  paying  low  salaries  and  another,  no  better 
if  as  well  qualified,  be  certified  to  an  office  paying 
high  salaries.  It  does  not  take  new  appointees 
long  to  learn  what  entrance  salaries  are  paid  in 
other  offices  and  they  are  quick  to  compare  them 
with  their  own,  and  become  satisfied  or  dis- 
contented accordingly,  varying  with  the  degree 
of  inequality. 

Competitors  in  the  examination  room  usually 
strive  to  make  the  highest  possible  ratings  in 
the  belief  that  the  higher  the  rating  the  higher 
entrance  salary  they  will  command.  It  would 
indeed  be  an  ideal  plan  were  this  the  case;  but 
the    situation    has    been    thoroughly    canvassed, 


Salaries  167 

not  only  by  our  Government  but  by  civil-sen 
officers  of  foreign  governments,  and  no  method 
for  its  attainment  appears  practicable.  The 
best  that  can  be  done,  so  far  as  experience  at 
present  goes,  is  for  each  bureau  to  make  a  practice 
of  appointing  freshmen  at  low  salaries  and  pro- 
moting up  the  line.  This  method  is  urged  upon 
all  offices  by  the  Civil  Service  Commission ;  but, 
while  it  is  observed  in  some  respects,  it  is  not 
feasible  at  all  times.  No  office  can  be  justly 
criticised  for  seeking  to  obtain  the  best  assistants 
available,  and  first-class  assistants  command 
higher  initial  compensation  than  those  with  less 
experience. 

It  would  be  absurd  for  the  head  of  an  office 
to  turn  aside  a  particularly  valuable  eligible  and 
promote  one  of  less  efficiency  merely  for  the 
sake  of  complying  with  a  theoretical  ideal.  Such 
a  course  would  not  be  for  the  best  interests  of 
the  public  service,  for  which  the  whole  merit 
system  is  designed. 

What  is  a  fair  entrance  salary?  This  question 
rises  in  the  mind  of  every  successful  candidate 
who,  it  is  assumed,  wants  to  enter  Government 
service  at  the  average  compensation  paid  his 
competitors.  Owing  to  lack  of  information  upon 
this  point,  many  candidates  refuse  appointment, 
while  others  accept  places  at  much  less  than  the 
average  entering  salary.  The  question  of  entrance 
pay  affects  only  places  in  the  clerical,  quasi- 
clerical,    and    supra-clerical    classes    where    pro- 


1 68     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

motions  may  be  expected  to  follow  at  intervals 
as  vacancies  occur  and  experience  warrants; 
trades  positions,  with  few  exceptions,  provide 
no  system  of  promotion  for  incumbents,  as  it 
is  assumed  that  anyone  who  can  perform  his 
mechanical  duties  in  a  workmanlike  manner  is 
a  journeyman  and  entitled  to  the  journeyman's 
pay. 

When  the  mechanic  becomes  a  foreman  he 
is  out  of  the  journeyman  class,  and  becomes  a 
master.  A  young  machinist  may  run  a  lathe 
quite  as  well  as  one  who  has  had  years  of  ex- 
perience, as  the  whole  thing  resolves  itself  into 
a  question  of  mechanics  such  as  centring  and 
tool  adjustment;  but  when  it  comes  to  the 
clerical  positions  the  problem  becomes  one  of 
individualism.  Clerical  work  varies  so  widely  and 
its  relative  value  differs  so  much  that  a  uniform 
entrance  standard  is  out  of  the  question  except 
for  positions  like  mail  carriers  and  clerkships  in 
the  railway  mail  service.  Therefore,  in  speaking 
of  entrance  salary  it  will  be  understood  as  applying 
to  the  clerical  and  related  grades  of  service. 

Taking  the  departments  at  Washington  as  an 
index  the  following  are  average  entrance  salaries: 

Clerks $  900  a  year 

Bookkeepers 1000 

Draftsmen 1 200 

Scientific  aids 720 

Clerks.— This  term  includes  a  large  number 


Salaries  169 

of  office-holders  not  rated  as  clerks,  such  as 
copyists,  stenographers,  typewriters,  transcribers, 
indexers,  cataloguers,  assistant  librarians,  certain 
kinds  of  attendants,  translators,  statisticians, 
section  chiefs,  abstractors,  assistant  chiefs  of 
division,  and  a  large  number  of  miscellaneous 
employes  whose  duties  are  of  a  clerical  nature. 
When  candidates  in  this  class  accept  appoint- 
ment at  less  than  $900  a  year  they  are  entering 
at  less  than  a  fair  average  compensation  and  are 
handicapped  accordingly. 

Many  offices  provide  two  grades  of  clerkships 
below  $900,  viz.,  $720  and  $840  a  year,  equivalent 
to  $60  and  $70  a  month  respectively  in  com- 
mercial offices.  Eligibles  accepting  places  paying 
an  entrance  salary  less  than  $900  a  year  almost 
invariably  find  that  the  opportunities  for  pro- 
motion are  no  better,  and  often  less  favorable, 
than  in  offices  paying  a  fair  entrance  salary;  and 
it  is  a  serious  mistake,  from  the  candidate's 
viewpoint,  to  accept  small  salaries  in  the  hope 
that  promotion  will  come  soon.  Offices  making 
meagre  provision  for  clerical  assistance  are  by 
no  means  generous  when  the  question  of  pro- 
motion arises.  Conversely,  offices  and  bureaus 
providing  fair  entrance  salaries  are  to  be  given 
preference  by  the  eligible  in  accepting  appoint- 
ment, especially  if  he  be  well  up  in  experience 
and  anticipates  making  Government  service  a 
career.  It  should  be  remembered,  in  connection 
with  the  question  of  promotion,  that  under  the 


17°     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

law  an  emplc^e  cannot  be  transferred  to  another 
department  without  having  served  three  years 
in  the  department  from  which  he  seeks  to  be 
transferred.  Formerly  obtaining  promotion  by 
transfer  offered  considerable  encouragement  to 
one  accepting  a  low  entrance  salary;  it  does  so 
no  longer.  It  will  be  seen  from  this  that  the 
acceptance  of  less  than  the  average  entrance  pay 
works  a  hindrance  financially,  and  discontent 
and  discouragement  often  follow  in  the  clerk's 
path. 

There  is  a  tendency,  growing  stronger  year  by 
year,  to  raise  the  entrance  pay  of  clerical  positions 
to  a  uniform  basis  of  $900,  particularly  in  view 
of  the  three-year  transfer  clause.  A  better 
quality  of  work  is  observable  in  bureaus  making 
fair  provision  for  clerical  and  other  assistants, 
due  to  the  fact  that  such  offices  secure  a  better 
class  of  appointees  than  offices  holding  out  smaller 
financial  inducements.  There  is  no  doubt  that 
a  law  to  this  effect  would  be  of  great  value  to 
offices  now  paying  low  salaries,  where  frequent 
clerical  changes  interfere  with  the  transaction  of 
public  business  by  making  it  necessary  to  train 
new  appointees.  The  changes  in  the  personnel 
receiving  small  salaries  are  very  numerous  com- 
pared with  those  occurring  among  employes 
receiving  good  pay,  due  to  the  individual  strug- 
gling to  obtain  better  financial  inducements. 

The  value  of  uniform  entrance  salaries  is  well 
seen  in  the  case  of  railway  mail  clerks  and  mail 


Salaries  1 7 1 

carriers.  The  entrance  pay  of  these  two  large 
classes  of  employes  is  fixed,  as  are  the  increments 
of  promotion.  A  mail  clerk  in  Ohio,  for  instance, 
knows  that  he  receives  as  much  for  his  work  as 
is  paid  anywhere  in  the  country  and  has  no  cause 
for  jealousy,  discontent,  or  a  feeling  of  unfair 
treatment.  He  has  no  cause,  other  than  a  nomadic 
spirit,  to  seek  a  transfer  to  some  other  locality. 
The  entrance  salaries  of  these  two  classes  are 
$600  a  year  for  carriers  and  $800  for  railway 
mail  clerks.  These  entrance  salaries  are  not  up 
to  the  general  average  of  departmental  clerks, 
owing  to  the  fact  that  the  requirements  in  the 
way  of  business  training  and  office  experience 
are  less  than  in  the  case  of  the  departmental 
clerk. 

Bookkeepers.— This  includes  accountants,  fis- 
cal clerks,  disbursing  assistants,  time-keepers, 
paymasters,  etc.  Considerable  experience  and 
a  practical  knowledge  of  accounts  is  required  to 
secure  a  position  as  bookkeeper.  The  ordinary 
graduate  from  a  commercial  college  can  hardly 
secure  a  place  as  bookkeeper,  as  his  lack  of  ex- 
perience is  against  him.  The  work  of  the  Govern- 
ment bookkeeper  is  usually  tedious  and  wearing, 
and  it  can  in  no  manner  be  compared  with  the 
bookkeeping  practised  in  small  commercial  es- 
tablishments. Entrance  salaries  as  low  as  $720 
are  rarely  offered  bookkeepers,  though  $900 
is  an  average  in  a  few  offices.  Some  offices  pay 
$1200  upon  entrance;   $1000  is  a  fair  average. 


172     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

Draftsmen.— There  has  been  such  a  demand 
for  many  years  in  commercial  life  for  first-class 
draftsmen  that  the  Government  has  scarcely 
been  able  to  cover  its  demand  for  draftsmen  at 
$1200  a  year.  Hydrographic  and  topographic 
draftsmen  usually  command  more.  The  entrance 
salaries  for  copyist-draftsmen  range  as  low  as 
$720,  there  being  no  uniformity;  clerks  are 
assigned  to  this  kind  of  work  if  they  prove  handy 
with  the  pencil. 

Scientific  Aids.- — By  this  term  is  meant  junior 
assistants  in  agriculture,  the  engineering  sciences, 
medicine,  and  mathematics.  Some  aids,  par- 
ticularly in  a  number  of  bureaus  under  the  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  receive  as  low  as  $480  a 
year;  these  employes,  however,  are  regarded 
much  in  the  light  of  student-assistants  and  they 
receive,  in  addition  to  their  nominal  compensation, 
special  training.  The  examinations  for  aid  are 
difficult,  the  requirements  in  the  way  of  scientific 
learning  high,  and  the  work  anything  but  easy. 
The  entrance  salary  of  $720,  therefore,  is  not 
munificent  and  would  not  be  worth  while  were 
there  no  hopes  of  professional  advancement. 

Entrance  salary,  on  the  whole,  to  any  position 
wherever  found  is  largely  in  the  hands  of  the 
applicant,  inasmuch  as  all  candidates  are  given 
a  chance  at  the  examination  to  state  their  mini- 
mum entrance  pay.  Competitors  should  not 
specify  less  than  they  feel  they  are  worth  in  the 
hope  of  adjusting  the  matter  after  appointment 


Salaries  1 73 

or  by  forcing  a  higher  salary  from  the  Government 
by  declining  appointment. 

A  good  rule  to  follow  in  deciding  what  is  a 
fair  entrance  salary  is  to  add  25  per  cent,  to  the 
average  salary  paid  for  the  same  class  of  work 
in  commercial  life  when  dealing  with  clerical  or 
semi-clerical  positions,  10  per  cent,  in  the  case 
of  trades  positions,  15  per  cent,  for  unskilled 
labor;  deduct  10  per  cent,  from  commercial 
salaries  in  the  case  of  junior  scientists  and  minor 
executive  positions,  and  deduct  25  to  75  per 
cent,  from  commercial  salaries  for  senior  Govern- 
ment scientists  and  higher  executive  positions. 


CHAPTER  IX 
s  al  ari  e  s- — Continued 

A  MOVEMENT  looking  toward  salary  readjust- 
ment has  been  in  progress  for  a  number  of 
years.  This  movement  is  growing,  but  slowly, 
so  slowly  as  to  be  hardly  perceptible.  Legislators, 
with  whom  rests  the  power  of  fixing  salaries,  are 
not  permitted  to  act  entirely  according  to  their 
personal  wishes;  they  represent  the  people  and 
the  people  are  exceedingly  sensitive  in  the  matter 
of  remuneration.  Right  or  wrong,  reasonable  or 
unreasonable,  the  people  of  this  country  do  not 
countenance  radical  and  widespread  departures 
from  the  remuneration  now  paid  public  employes. 
If  these  changes  look  to  a  general  increase  in 
pay  the  cry  of  "Salary  grabbers!"  is  raised;  if 
a  general  cut  were  suggested  the  people  would 
censure  the  Government  for  its  stinginess.  The 
question,  therefore,  is  resolved  largely  into  one 
of  politics,  and  the  lawmakers  are,  in  a  measure, 
compelled  to  proceed  cautiously. 

Inequalities  of  Pay. — Each  session  of  the  Con- 
gress sees  improvement  in  this  or  that  branch 
of  the  service;  sometimes  it  is  the  clerical  force 
that    receives    recognition,    at    other   times   the 

174 


Salaries  175 

scientific  corps,  and  now  and  then  the  higher 
officials.  This  method  of  reform,  proceeding  on 
the  principle  that  the  world  was  not  made  in  a 
day,  accomplishes  good;  but  it  does  not  correct 
the  glaring  inequalities  of  salary. 

The  question  of  different  pay  in  different 
offices  for  the  same  kind  of  work  has  been  for 
many  years  a  thorn  in  the  flesh  of  executive 
officers.  Committee  after  committee  has  been 
appointed  to  investigate  the  various  branches 
with  a  view  of  adjusting  differences.  The  result 
has  been  a  clipping  of  salaries  here  and  increasing 
them  there.  These  committees  have  done  a 
great  deal;  but,  as  in  private  business,  the  per- 
sonal equation  is  too  much  involved  to  apply  an 
inflexible  rule  to  all  cases.  Thus,  Banker  X 
may  pay  his  principal  bookkeeper  $10,000  a 
year,  while  Banker  Y  pays  his  but  $2000,  though 
both  accountants  be  equally  competent  and  the 
business  interests  involved  equal;  there  are 
many  reasons  why  Banker  X  sees  fit  to  pay 
more  than  the  average  salary  and  just  as  many 
why  Banker  Y  pays  less.  Exactly  the  same 
principle  is  applicable  to  the  hundreds  of  Govern- 
ment offices. 

Offices  paying  low  salaries  have  good  reasons 
therefor  and  those  paying  high  salaries  for 
similar  work  have  just  as  good  reasons.  It  all 
depends  upon  the  point  of  view.  One  executive 
officer  may  believe  in  attracting  first-class  men 
by   inducements  of  high   salaries  and   make   up 


176     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

his  estimates  accordingly.  Another  official  may- 
take  the  stand  that  it  is  wrong  in  principle  for 
Government  offices  to  bid  against  each  other  in 
making  up  their  office  personnel.  Both  reasons 
are  good  and  both  officers  will  secure  good  men, 
but  at  different  salaries. 

Inequalities  of  salaries  are  often  the  source  of 
discontent,  particularly  to  the  minor  grades  of 
employes.  The  higher  the  grade  of  service  the 
less  complaint  is  heard  among  employes,  although 
the  inequalities  of  pay  prevail  quite  as  exten- 
sively as  in  the  lower  grades. 

That  there  are  injustices  worked  by  the  salary 
system  as  now  operated  by  the  Government  is 
unquestionable.  Viewed  by  the  employe,  it  is 
galling  to  know  that  one  receives  less  pay  than 
the  average  for  similar  work;  and  it  is  not  a 
matter  for  self-congratulation,  in  the  event  of 
over  pay,  to  know  that  the  increment  is  attached 
to  the  position  rather  than  to  the  incumbent. 
But  unearned  money  buys  as  much  as  that  which 
is  hard  earned,  and  no  one  appreciates  this  quite 
as  much  as  the  victim  of  inequalities.  He  is 
an  exceptional  man  indeed  whom  injustice  cannot 
sting;  he  has  in  him  the  elements  of  great  success. 
Men  of  this  kind  are  as  few  in  the  Government 
as  in  private  life.  As  the  average  man  is  far  from 
great,  we  can  hardly  expect  him  to  show  many 
elements  of  greatness;  he,  therefore,  should  not  be 
too  severely  censured  for  complaining  of  injustice 
and  resigning  at  the  first  favorable  opportunity. 


Salaries  177 

The  complaints  arising  because  of  inequalities 
of  pay  are  not  confined  to  employes.  Executive 
officers  come  in  for  their  share,  but  their  com- 
plaints take  another  direction.  Their  troubles 
come  about  through  the  resignations  of  employes 
whom  they  have  trained.  It  is  far  from  pleasing 
to  know  that  your  office  is  used  as  a  sort  of  training 
school  for  other  offices  which  pay  better  salaries 
for  similar  work. 

Whatever  the  inequalities  of  pay,  Government 
employes  have  the  satisfaction  of  knowing  that 
inequalities  obtain  to  a  greater,  far  greater  extent, 
in  commercial  offices.  When  one  is  the  victim 
of  inequality  the  best  way  to  do  is  to  "grin  and 
bear  it"  and  watch  for  an  opportunity  to  secure 
a  transfer  or  appointment  to  a  more  favored 
place.  Whining  accomplishes  nothing;  it  makes 
a  person  disagreeable  to  himself  and  to  others. 

The  Dockage  System.- — The  dockage  system 
that  prevails  so  extensively  throughout  the 
business  world  is  recognized  in  a  modified  form 
in  Federal  offices  and  workshops.  Instead  of 
deducting  from  the  pay  because  of  absence  from 
duty,  the  time  used  by  an  employe,  either  in 
being  late  at  his  office  or  otherwise,  is  charged 
to  the  employe's  leave  of  absence.  Thus,  if  a 
clerk  arrive  one  hour  late  that  hour  is  charged 
against  his  thirty  days'  annual  leave  of  absence ; 
and  instead  of  having  thirty  days'  vacation,  he 
will  have  but  twenty-nine  days  six  hours.  Persons 
working  by  the  hour  or  by  the  day  are  ''dockei  1 " 


178     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

for  lost  time  as  in  the  business  world,  inasmuch  as 
they  are  not  entitled  to  any  vacation  with  pay. 

Salaries  Here  and  Abroad. — Practically  the 
same  comparison  may  be  drawn  between  the 
salaries  paid  by  this  Government  and  those  paid 
by  foreign  powers  as  has  been  drawn  between 
the  salaries  paid  by  the  Government  and  those 
paid  in  commercial  life.  The  lower  grades  of 
employes  under  foreign  Governments  receive  from 
10  to  60  per  cent,  less  than  those  employed  by 
the  United  States  Government,  while  the  higher 
officials  receive  much  more  than  our  officials,  in 
some  cases  ten  times  as  much.  Thus  an  average 
clerk  under  our  system  receives  $1200  a  year 
while  in  Great  Britain  he  gets  but  half  that 
amount.  Some  Governments  require  beginners 
to  serve  a  year  without  pay. 

The  same  comparison  may  be  made  between 
all  other  corresponding  positions,  the  high  places 
paying  more  than  those  under  our  Government 
and  the  lower  positions  less.  This  comparison 
pertains  not  only  to  Great  Britain,  but  to  all 
first-class  and  many  second-class  powers.  Whether 
the  high  places  in  our  Government  would  be 
better  filled  if  they  paid  more  and  whether  as 
good  service  could  be  secured  for  less  money  than 
is  at  present  paid  in  the  immense  army  of  subor- 
dinate places  is  an  open  question. 

Promotions.— The  question  of  promotion  is 
an  important  one  to  every  employe"  of  the  Govern- 
ment.   This  covers  all  branches  and  all  classes  of 


Salaries  1 79 

the  intricate  network  of  the  civil-service  system. 
Few  persons  would  care  to  take  service  under  the 
Government  in  a  position  that  paid  a  i\ 
salary  for  life,  though  that  salary  were  consider- 
ably better  than  similar  service  would  bring  in 
other  branches  of  endeavor.  There  is  something 
in  every  normal  man  that  demands  more,  some- 
thing that  continually  hopes  for  betterment ;  and 
it  is  this  eternal  struggle  for  improvement  that 
spells  success.  An  ambitionless  man  is  of  small 
use  to  himself  or  to  the  world.  It  is  right  to  hope 
and  strive  for  better  pay,  provided  those  efforts 
be  confined  within  reasonable  limits.  There  is 
such  a  thing  as  demanding  too  much  and  de- 
manding it  too  often ;  this  is  not  fair  to  the  other 
man. 

As  in  business  life,  the  workers  divide  them- 
selves into  two  distinct  classes:  the  planners  and 
the  plodders.  The  planners  are  the  men  with 
ideas,  who  map  out  policies;  the  plodders  are 
the  vast  multitude  of  employes  who  do  the  actual 
work  in  carrying  out  the  policies,  the  men  who 
dig  and  delve  in  the  workshops  and  at  desks, 
and  who  rack  their  brains  and  muscles  in  weaving 
the  great  fabric  of  progress.  Neither  can  get 
along  without  the  other  and  eminent  successes 
have  developed  in  both  classes.  In  private 
business  the  plodder  seldom  rises  above  $100  a 
month,  in  the  Government  he  rarely  exceeds 
$1800  a  year;  in  either  case  he  may  reach  these 
figures  by  sheer  persistence.     The  planners  have 


180     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

no  limit  to  their  financial  attainments  in  business 
life  and  they  are  the  ones  who  get  the  finest 
plums  in  the  Government  orchard. 

Promotion  is  another  word  for  progress,  whether 
in  the  Government  or  outside.  Many  erroneous 
and  fantastic  ideas  prevail  concerning  promotions 
of  public  employes.  It  is  widely  supposed  that 
close  attention  to  business  assures  promotion. 
Promotions  are  seldom  made  without  efficiency; 
but,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  attention  to  business, 
faithfulness  and  efficiency  are  not  in  themselves 
sufficient  to  win  success  under  the  Government 
any  more  than  they  are  in  private  enterprise. 
Merit  is  necessary  and  few  rise  without  it;  but 
mere  merit  is  not  enough.  More  must  be  had 
to  attain  a  high  degree  of  success.  There  are 
to-day  hundreds  upon  hundreds  of  clerks  in  the 
departments  whose  goal  has  been  reached  years 
ago;  they  are  good,  faithful,  efficient  workers. 
They  do  their  work  well,  arrive  at  their  place  of 
business  promptly,  are  gentlemanly  and  courteous 
in  their  manner;  but  they  have  become  cogs  in 
the  wheel,  to  perform  the  same  work  day  after 
day  till  worn  out  and  then  comes  the  end. 

The  American  Government,  with  rare  ex- 
ception, makes  no  provision  for  the  automatic 
promotion  of  its  office-holders.  Promotions  of 
civilians  come  through  haphazard  channels.  Not- 
withstanding the  spirit  of  the  civil-service  reg- 
ulations, providing  that  the  higher  positions 
shall  be  filled  by  promotion  from  the  lower  grades, 


Salaries  1 8 1 

there  are  so  many  contingencies  that  ' '  v. 
pulling"  and  personal  influence  are  brought  to 
bear  when  the  question  of  promotion  arises. 
To  rise,  even  on  merit,  it  is  necessary  to  be  known. 
The  plodding  clerk,  occupying  some  remote 
desk  in  a  big  office,  will  be  passed  over,  though 
it  be  his  turn  to  be  promoted,  in  favor  of  a  betUr 
known  and  more  aggressive  person. 

Sometimes  the  executive  heads  of  offices  go  out- 
side for  candidates  to  fill  vacancies  that  could  and 
should  be  filled  by  promotion.  It  is  not  necessary 
nor  relevant  to  discuss  the  ethics  of  this  practice. 
It  is  done,  and  not  infrequently  so.  Sometimes 
an  honest  desire  to  secure  the  best  to  be  had 
impels  the  action;  sometimes  a  personal  friend 
wants  a  place;  sometimes  it  is  a  question  of 
politics.  This  being  so,  it  behooves  every  man 
to  look  after  his  interests,  but  to  do  it  in  a  way 
that  will  not  make  himself  a  nuisance  to  the 
office. 

The  office-holder  should  keep  close  track  of 
his  relative  rank  when  promotion  time  conns 
around.  If  he  be  employed  in  an  office  where 
outsiders  are  drafted  to  fill  vacancies,  he  should 
have  a  word  with  the  head  of  the  office;  if  his 
office  complies  with  the  spirit  of  the  civil-service 
regulations  in  filling  the  higher  places  by  pro- 
motion from  the  lower  positions,  it  will  not 
necessary  to  call  attention  to  his  expectations. 
Happily  the  latter  practice  is  more  common. 

Many  times  the  personal  equation  enters  into 


1 82     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

the  question  of  promotion,  especially  in  those 
offices  where  the  salaries  are  paid  out  of  "lump 
sums."  The  lump  sum  makes  it  possible  for 
administrative  officers  to  promote  certain  em- 
ployes and  hold  back  others.  It  is  to  an  employe's 
interest,  therefore,  to  let  his  merits  be  known 
as  widely  as  possible;  that  is,  to  put  it  bluntly, 
advertise  himself.  This  advertising  should  be 
done  in  a  modest  way  and  all  kinds  of  false 
claims  avoided.  A  knowledge  of  the  fact  that 
no  one  else,  either  in  the  office  or  out  of  it,  can  do 
better  or  more  work,  will  cause  a  great  deal  of 
comment  which  is  sure  to  reach  the  ears  of  the 
chief  and  cause  him  to  take  notice  when  he 
otherwise  might  be  blind.  If  an  employe  does 
this  and  makes  friends  his  chances  for  promotion 
will  be  enhanced. 

It  is  never  wise  to  antagonize  an  executive 
officer  or  his  policy;  no  good  can  come  of  it  to 
either  party.  Antagonism  is  sure  to  breed  an- 
tagonism, and  it  results  in  poor  work  and  dis- 
content; where  it  develops,  it  is  best  that  a 
change  of  positions  be  made.  Balking,  boasting, 
and  threatening  seldom  result  in  promotion.  A 
cheerful  disposition,  readiness  to  demonstrate  a 
superior  efficiency  to  any  one  at  any  time,  and 
the  ability  to  make  and  keep  friends  are  valuable 
assets  at  promotion  time. 

There  is  such  a  thing  as  favoritism  under  the 
Government,  just  as  there  is  in  any  other  line 
of  work.     Government  officers  are  human  to  the 


Salaries  183 

same  extent  the  employes  are.  It  is  natural 
that,  when  making  promotions,  they  should 
favor  the  ones  they  know  best,  other  things  being 
equal.  This  is  proper  and  conducive  to  the  1 
execution  of  public  business.  Criticism  is  some- 
times aimed  at  officials  for  observing  this,  but 
it  is  practicable  and  results  in  good;  and  when 
a  thing  is  both  practicable  and  good  strong 
arguments  indeed  are  necessary  to  convince  the 
reasonable-minded  to  the  contrary. 

Promotions  in  the  civil  service  are  quite  gen- 
erally made  according  to  seniority,  but  there  is 
no  rule  or  regulation  that  will  not  permit  the 
promotion  of  the  best  man  available  when  a 
vacancy  occurs.  And  why  should  this  not  be 
done?  There  is  a  strong  disposition  to  promote 
on  the  strict  principle  of  efficiency  rather  than 
on  seniority,  particularly  in  filling  the  places 
carrying  considerable  responsibility.  Vacancies 
in  the  lower  grades  are  as  a  rule  filled  by  seniority 
promotion;  but  vacancies  in  executive  places 
under  the  merit  system,  such  as  those  of  chief 
clerk  and  chief  of  division,  are  seldom  filled 
otherwise  than  by  favoritism  based  on  merit. 
And  in  this  connection  attention  is  invited  to 
the  word  merit. 

Those  seeking  promotion  should  bear  in  mind 
that  an  appropriation  must  be  available  before 
promotions  can  be  made.  Those  holding  ap- 
pointment on  the  "statutory  roll"  cannot  l"v 
promoted  where  there  is  no  vacancy;   those  paid 


184     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

from  "lump  sums"  should  ascertain  whether 
funds  are  available  before  launching  a  campaign 
for  an  increase  in  salary.  Employes  are  some- 
times heard  to  complain,  usually  to  each  other, 
that  "it  is  about  time  they  are  promoted." 
Complaining  employes  should  ascertain  whether 
it  really  is  time,  or  whether  they  merely  think 
so.  Regulations  governing  promotions  are  in 
force  throughout  the  departments  and  employes 
should  familiarize  themselves  with  those  regu- 
lations before  lodging  complaint  either  wTith 
friends  or  with  their  superiors. 

Promoting  "over  the  head"  of  employes 
usually  results  in  discontent  and  spasmodic 
indignation  among  those  "jumped,"  but  excites 
little  or  no  comment  among  those  not  directly 
interested.  Executive  officers  usually  know  what 
they  are  about  when  they  make  recommenda- 
tions for  promotion;  it  is  not  to  the  interest 
of  an  office  manager  to  fill  the  best  places  with 
incompetents.  It  is  best  to  select  lieutenants 
that  will  prove  the  most  valuable  in  building 
up  a  bureau  and  maintaining  its  work  on  a 
creditable  foundation.  It  would  be  absurd  and 
unwise  for  a  bureau  head  to  promote  solely  on 
seniority  regardless  of  efficiency.  Such  a  practice 
would  strike  at  the  root  of  the  civil-service 
system  by  taking  away  the  reward  of  merit; 
superior  efficiency  would  command  no  premium, 
and  there  would  be  no  incentive  for  a  man  to  do 
his  best.     Instead,  work  would  develop  into  an 


Salaries  [85 

uninteresting  and  unattractive  grind  that  could 
result  in  nothing  creditable. 

Some  foreign  Governments  operate  their  civil- 
service  systems  under  various  schemes  of  auto- 
matic promotions,  depending  upon  efficiency. 
Under  these  systems  all  civil  employes  are  ap- 
pointed to  the  lowest  grades  and  rise  by  periodical 
increments  to  the  highest.  By  the  operation  of 
compulsory  transfers  an  employe  becomes  familiar 
with  a  large  number  of  governmental  branch* 
and  a  wide  variety  of  public  work,  and  he  rests 
assured  of  promotion.  Such  plans  correspond 
with  service  promotions  in  our  military  and 
naval  branches.  There  are  advantages  and 
disadvantages  of  the  system  too  numerous  to 
itemize.  The  advantages  appear  to  predominate, 
and  there  is  a  feeling  in  many  quarters  in  Ami ari 
that  our  system  would  be  improved  by  instituting 
something  of  the  kind.  Appointees  wishing  to 
make  Government  service  a  career  should  in- 
vestigate these  systems  and  keep  abreast  of  the 
times.  By  so  doing  they  will  become  more 
valuable  public  servants. 


CHAPTER  X 

OPPORTUNITIES 

OPPORTUNITY  is  a  gem  in  the  rough.  It 
is  trampled  under  foot,  recognized  by  the 
few,  and  often  spurned  when  recognized.  The 
world  is  full  of  men  who  can  point  back  to  a 
time  in  their  lives  and  say,  "That  was  my  op- 
portunity, but  I  missed  it."  There  is  nothing 
sadder  than  the  tragedy  of  a  misspent  life,  es- 
pecially when  its  possessor  is  a  man  well  equipped 
by  nature  for  great  usefulness.  Next  to  the 
wasted  life  is  the  picture  of  an  old  man  brooding 
over  lost  opportunities. 

Life  cannot  be  lived  over  again,  but  the  present 
is  always  here  to  be  improved.  To-day  holds 
out  opportunities  as  golden  as  those  lost  yester- 
day. The  earth  can  never  give  up  all  its  gems, 
nor  can  the  mine  of  opportunity  ever  become 
exhausted.  A  glance  about,  a  discerning  eye, 
and  a  little  patience  in  the  harness  go  a  long 
way  toward  recovering  the  past  for  those  who 
have  lost  and  in  building  a  proud  structure  for 
those  who  have  just  begun  life's  battle. 

It  does  not  take  an  over-wise  man  to  see  op- 
portunities.     Opportunities  are   forced  upon  us. 

1 86 


Opportunities  187 

It  is  not  as  necessary  to  see  an  opportunity  as 
it  is  to  seize  it  when  it  comes  our  way.  Like 
success,  opportunity  has  a  relative  meaning. 
Popular  conception  makes  the  word  synonymous 
with  "chance  to  make  money."  This  is  the 
principal  definition  and  certainly  the  most  potent 
to  a  large  class  of  Americans.  With  respect  to 
the  business  world  the  word  has  no  other  meaning, 
and  we  have  come  to  measure,  to  a  wide  extent, 
all  careers  by  the  standard  of  commerce.  The 
learned  professions  are  commercialized  in  a 
degree,  in  that  the  highest  pay  is  a  magnet 
to  attract  the  most  capable.  Clerical  positions 
are  quite  generally  commercial  propositions.  Me- 
chanical places  are  simply  a  plain  sale  of  services 
to  the  highest  bidder.  So  in  speaking  of  op- 
portunities in  Government  service  the  ordinary 
man  is  almost  sure  to  measure  them  by  the 
amount  of  money  they  bring. 

Lack  of  Financial  Opportunity.- — As  a 
first  premise  it  should  be  stated  emphatically  and 
unequivocally  that  there  is  no  opportunity  what- 
ever to  grow  rich  in  the  United  States  civil 
service.  Men  expecting  to  pile  up  wealth  should 
give  our  civil-service  system  an  exceedingly 
wide  berth.  It  occasionally  happens  that  legis- 
lators and  those  entrusted  with  executing  t In- 
laws are  in  positions  to  see  the  business  effect 
of  enforcing  certain  Federal  regulations  and,  by 
investing  in  advance,  build  up  snug  fortunes. 
Such  chances,  however,   are   entirely   in   control 


1 88     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

of  officials  outside  of  the  classified  service.  The 
clerk  at  his  desk,  the  scientist  in  the  field,  or  the 
minor  official  executing  orders  has  little  know- 
ledge of  what  is  really  passing;  it  is  his  place  to 
obey.  If  he  does  his  duty  well  and  keeps  out  of 
the  ruts  he  is  reasonably  sure  of  a  life  position 
at  more  than  a  living  salary,  which  is  his  reward. 
The  reward  may  not  measure  up  financially  to 
that  of  his  executive  chief,  but  financial  gains 
are  merely  relative  and  bear  a  more  significant 
meaning  when  considered  from  the  viewpoint  of 
saving  money.  A  chance  to  secure  a  $900  ap- 
pointment leading  to  the  chiefship  of  a  division 
paying  $3000  a  year  would  be  a  splendid  op- 
portunity for  the  average  young  man;  but  such 
a  chance  would  be  scorned  by  the  man  owning 
a  business  worth  $25,000  a  year.  So  in  looking 
at  opportunity  its  relative  meaning  must  be 
considered. 

The  Civil  Service  Commission  says: 

There  is  not  sufficient  inducement  for  the  most 
capable  men  to  enter  the  examinations,  as  they 
can  do  better  by  seeking  employment  in  large  corpora- 
tions, trusts,  and  other  institutions,  where  they  can 
in  time  command  much  higher  salaries  than  they 
can  ever  hope  to  secure  in  the  Government  service. 

This  condition,  so  well  put  by  the  Commission, 
is  a  serious  problem  that  is  engaging  the  attention 
of  legislators  and  arises  through  the  national 
habit  of  gauging  all  values  by  a  financial  standard. 


Opportunities  189 

But  there  is  another  side  to  the  story.  Gold 
should  never  be  a  tyrant  with  the  public  employe\ 
His  duty  is  to  the  State,  and  when  he  begin! 
commercialize  his  post  it  is  time  to  resign  and 
go  into  business.  This,  of  course,  does  not  mean 
that  an  office-holder  should  be  contented  with 
any  reward,  no  matter  how  meagre;  it  has 
reference  entirely  to  persons  who  take  service 
with  the  Government  expecting  to  make  money 
out  of  it.  It  is  right  that  one  should  endeavor 
to  secure  a  goodly  income,  but  income  is  not  the 
only  consideration  to  be  taken  into  account. 

Passing  from  the  merely  commercial  phase  of 
opportunity  in  the  civil  service,  which  is  not 
conceded  a  proper  standard,  Government  service 
offers  many  inducements  for  men  and  women  of 
modest  ambition. 

Specialism.— This  is  a  day  of  specialism.  It 
is  a  rule  of  business,  of  agriculture,  of  professional 
life,  and  of  government.  Our  Government  has 
grown  so  intricate  that  it  is  no  longer  possible 
for  any  one  officer  or  employe  to  be  familiar  with 
every  part  of  the  great  machine.  The  parts 
interdependent  and  it  is  necessary  that  each 
part  should  perform  its  work  with  the  highest 
degree  of  efficiency;  and,  that  this  may  be  done, 
the  Commonwealth  looks  to  the  specialist  for  help. 

As  the  Government  expands,  the  expert  is  more 
and  more  in  demand,  and  it  is  certain  that  tin- 
future  will  see  this  demand  steadily  increase. 
New  bureaus  are  created  at  irregular  intervals, 


190    Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

and  these  new  branches  are  now  manned  almost 
wholly  by  specialists.  Old  methods  are  gradually 
giving  place  to  new  ones,  and  it  is  no  longer 
safe  for  a  chief  to  rely  entirely  upon  his  own 
judgment  in  executing  the  policies  entrusted  to 
him.  The  policies  of  our  most  successful  bureaus 
are  in  the  hands  of  men  who  have  shown  their 
wisdom  in  surrounding  themselves  with  as- 
sistants, high  and  low,  who  are  experts  in  their 
particular  work.  There  are  opportunities  for  a 
large  and  varied  number  of  specialists,  not  only 
in  the  administrative  places  but  in  professional  and 
minor  posts. 

Government  System  and  Methods. — At 
present  there  is  a  demand  for  modern  methods 
throughout  the  Government.  The  old-time  sys- 
tems are  passing  just  as  fast  as  men  with  ideas 
are  put  upon  the  pay-roll.  Here  is  an  oppor- 
tunity for  the  system  man  to  show  what  he  can 
do.  The  man  of  original  ideas,  who  can  devise 
plans  of  handling  the  public  business  more  ex- 
peditiously without  too  much  iconoclasm,  is  in 
demand  in  every  office.  But  he  must  not  be 
a  dreamer;  he  must  show  that  his  theories  are 
practicable  and  better  than  those  now  in  use. 
Whether  he  be  an  official  or  an  employe,  he 
must  measure  up  to  his  claims. 

There  is  at  present  too  little  initiative  in  certain 
offices,  too  little  originality,  too  much  red-tapism. 
The  men  at  the  head  of  the  administration  recog- 
nize this  condition  and  want  it  changed;    their 


Opportunities  [91 

only  handicap  is  the  lack  of  sufficient  men  of 
originality  to  make  the  changes. 

Not  a  few  office-holders  show  a  tendency  to  do 
things  without  accomplishing  anything,  recording 
their  efforts  in  voluminous  correspondence  and 
lengthy  reports  of  uninteresting  details.  The 
practice  of  making  much  ado  about  nothing  is 
frowned  upon  by  the  principal  executive  officers, 
who  are  always  glad  to  receive  the  right  kind  of 
suggestions  for  improving  any  particular  branch 
of  the  service.  Every  employe  in  every  office 
has  a  chance  to  help  in  this. 

Many  clerks  and  officers  know  of  better  ways 
of  doing  the  things  within  their  respective  juris- 
dictions, but  lack  initiative.  Any  improvement 
in  system,  no  matter  how  trivial,  if  properly 
laid  before  the  executive  chief,  will  be  welcomed. 
Persons  who  can  devise  improvements  or  who 
can  demonstrate  original  ideas  of  value  are 
almost  sure  to  meet  pronounced  success.  System 
ideas  are  needed  by  the  Government,  and  in 
their  development  lie  opportunities  for  those  who 
can  supply  them. 

Business  and  Finance.— There  is  a  growing 
demand  for  men  with  corporation  and  banking 
experience  to  take  places  in  the  new  branches  of 
the  Government  which  give  special  attention  to 
the  country's  business  interests.  Men  with 
broad,  sound  training  find  many  opportunities, 
particularly  in  the  various  bureaus  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Commerce  and  Labor. 


192     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

Owing  to  the  numerous  evils  that  have  de- 
veloped in  our  business  system,  it  has  become 
necessary  for  the  Government  to  step  in  and  lay 
down  certain  regulations  for  commercial  inter- 
course. Investigations  and  litigation  have 
resulted,  and  the  Government  now  finds  it  neces- 
sary to  employ  a  corps  of  business  and  financial 
experts  who  have  a  practical  knowledge  of  cor- 
porate methods.  Federal  regulation  has  by  no 
means  reached  a  maximum;  rather,  it  has  just 
begun,  and  the  future  will  no  doubt  bring  about 
a  much  more  intimate  relationship  between  the 
Commonwealth  and  our  country's  business  in- 
terests. 

"High  finance"  is  bound  to  receive  much 
more  attention  than  it  has  so  far  obtained.  The 
country's  business  conditions  are  undergoing  a 
change  in  which  conservatism,  founded  upon 
governmental  regulation,  is  likely  to  be  pre- 
dominant. This  means  that  the  corps  of  business 
experts  will  not  only  have  to  be  considerably 
augmented,  but  will  be  a  permanent  thing  and 
maintain  a  high  order  of  efficiency. 

The  prospects  for  capable  men  in  this  branch 
of  Federal  work  are  bright.  The  financial  rewards 
are  not  as  promising  as  the  same  ability  might 
bring  in  private  undertakings,  but  there  are 
other  compensations  such,  for  instance,  as  the 
honor  accruing  to  office-holders  who  accomplish 
things  and  to  whom  the  nation  looks  for  help. 
This    does    not    mean    that    pinching    economies 


Opportunities  [93 

must  be  observed  to  meet  living  expenses.     On 

the  contrary,  the  money  remuneration  is  in 
most  cases  sufficient  to  enable  one  to  save  con- 
siderable against  the  future. 

The  openings  presented  in  this  line  of  civil- 
service  work  are  not  alone  for  men  in  adminis- 
trative places.  Subordinates  are  needed  to  fill 
the  clerical  places  and  the  posts  of  assistants. 
Good  clerks  versed  in  corporate  business,  prefer- 
ably young  men,  will  find  opportunities  in  this 
branch  of  work  that  they  did  not  expect  to 
encounter  in  the  civil  service.  There  is  no  reason 
why  capable  young  men  should  not  take  up  this 
work  and  make  it  a  career.  A  knowledge  of  law 
is,  of  course,  a  prerequisite  of  success;  beyond 
the  point  of  an  inspectorship  it  may  be  said 
that  there  are  few  chances  for  men  without  a 
legal  education.  While  it  is  not  necessary,  in 
the  subordinate  places,  to  be  expert  in  all  the 
intricacies  of  the  law,  a  general  knowledge  of 
the  principles  involved  should  be  had.  This 
general  knowledge  should  be  reinforced  by  a 
thorough  familiarity  with  the  statutes  and  de- 
partmental methods.  The  graduate  of  a  law 
school,  versed  in  the  laws  and  regulations  govern- 
ing railroad  and  other  interstate  concerns,  can 
be  a  valuable  assistant  to  the  Government. 

The    Civil    Service    Commission    is    sometimes 
called  upon  to  hold  examinations  to  fill   pli 
in  which   a   knowledge  of   commercial,  banking, 
and  railroad  methods  is  a  requisite.     This  is  a 
13 


194     Practical  Federal  Civil  Sendee 

radical  departure  from  the  old  method  of  rilling 
subordinate  positions  on  the  basis  of  scholastic 
examinations,  and  is  a  result  of  new  conditions 
well  illustrating  the  progressive  feature  of  our 
Government.  It  augurs  well  for  our  civil  service 
when  business  places,  both  high  and  low,  are 
rilled  by  business  men. 

The  Engineering  Professions.- — The  United 
States  is  undertaking  an  increasing  number  of 
engineering  enterprises  for  execution  by  the 
civil  branch  of  the  service.  This  means  that 
civil,  electrical,  mechanical,  and  marine  engineers 
have  a  secure  standing  in  the  public  service.  The 
military  and  naval  arms  have,  for  some  time, 
drawn  upon  civilian  engineers  for  assistance  in 
executing  strictly  righting  plans.  Recommenda- 
tions have  several  times  been  made  to  the 
Congress  for  the  creation  of  a  corps  of  civilian 
engineers  to  rank  with  corresponding  places  in 
the  fighting  arm  now  filled  by  commissioned 
officers.  There  is  little  doubt  that  these  recom- 
mendations will  be  acted  upon  favorably  in  the 
not  distant  future. 

The  opportunities  for  engineers  in  the  Coast 
and  Geodetic  Survey,  the  Geological  Survey,  and 
the  field  work  of  the  General  Land  Office  are 
choice.  The  work  is  high  grade  and  pleasant, 
the  professional  associations  are  unusually  con- 
genial, and  the  chances  for  securing  good  places 
in  the  nation's  history  are  excellent.  The  en- 
gineers of  these  services  are  held  in  high  esteem 


Opportunities  195 

by  the  shipping,  mining,  and  agricultural  interests. 
New  fields  have  lately  been  opened  in  Alaska 
and  our  island  possessions  which  arc  sure  to 
result  in  important  discoveries  and  lasting  1  »enefi1  s 

Technical  Clerks.' — At  no  time  have  the 
opportunities  for  technical  clerks  been  so  numer 
as  they  now  are  and  at  no  time  have  clerks, 
qualified  by  education  and  experience  to  perfi  1 
technical  work,  been  so  relatively  few  in  number. 
The  scientific  bureaus  make  a  demand,  constantly 
increasing,  for  clerks  competent  to  handle  in- 
telligently the  office  details  of  their  work.  Much 
of  this  work  is  highly  technical  in  character, 
requiring  some  knowledge  of  the  respect 
branch  of  science  involved.  The  ordinary  clerk, 
trained  to  act  strictly  under  orders,  is  unable, 
in  a  large  majority  of  these  positions,  to  perform 
the  work  satisfactorily.  Comprehension  and 
judgment  are  required.  A  college  or  part  college 
education  is  needed  in  addition  to  a  practical 
knowledge  of  business  customs  and  thorough 
familiarity  with  departmental  regulations.  A 
clerk  engaged  in  technical  work  should  be  able 
to  follow  closely  the  scientific  work  of  his  im- 
mediate superiors  and  to  enter  into  the  spirit  of 
the  investigations  at  hand. 

A  working  knowledge  of  French  and  German 
is  quite  essential  to  the  technical  clerk.     If  he 
has  had  three  years  of  Latin,  one  year  of  French 
will  be  sufficient  to  give  him  a  reading  knowl- 
of  the  language.     Two  years  of  German  are  suf- 


196     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

ficient  for  that  language.  If  he  know  his  Latin 
well  he  will  have  no  trouble  in  acquiring  enough 
Spanish,  Portuguese,  Italian,  and  French  in  two 
years'  study  to  enable  him  to  handle  the  scientific 
literature  of  those  modern  languages.  More 
scientific  books  and  papers  appear  in  German 
than  in  all  other  European  languages  combined, 
French  omitted.  It  is  not  necessary  to  be  able 
to  speak  and  write  the  languages.  Scientific 
correspondence  is  usually  conducted  in  one's 
native  tongue.  There  are  few  scientists  who  can 
speak  and  write  fluently  any  language  other  than 
their  own,  and  yet  it  is  rare  to  find  one  who  can 
not  read  at  least  three  modern  languages.  To 
the  uninformed  a  reading  knowledge  of  six 
modern  languages- — English,  German,  French, 
Italian,  Spanish,  and  Portuguese — sounds  formid- 
able and  not  worth  while  in  gaining.  On  the 
contrary,  their  acquisition  is  not  a  formidable 
task  and  it  is  by  all  means  worth  while. 

A  knowledge  of  stenography  is  useful  but  not 
always  necessary.  Familiarity  with  the  type- 
writer, however,  is  quite  indispensable.  It  is  no 
longer  considered  good  form  to  submit  pen- 
written  papers  for  publication.  The  use  of  the 
typewriter  is  so  universal  that  handwriting  must 
be  very  legible  to  be  acceptable  to  the  printer; 
and  in  this  connection  it  must  be  said  that  few 
persons  indeed  possess  that  beautiful  accomplish- 
ment. It  is  not  unusual  for  authors — both 
literary  and  scientific  —to  compose  their  papers 


Opportunities  197 

directly  upon  the  typewriter.     This  plan  has 
many   advantages   that   they   scarcely   need 
planation,    chief    among    them    being    legibility. 
The  work  of  the  technical  clerk  in  abstracting 
and  in  the  compilation  of  data  is  usually  such  1 1 
it  would  be  a  physical  impossibility  for  him  to 
put    it    into   handwriting  without  producing  an 
unintelligible  scrawl. 

There  are  specialties  in  the  work  of  the  technical 
clerk  as  there  are  in  all  other  civil-service  work. 
For  example,  there  is  the  specialty  in  chemistry, 
in  civil  engineering,  botany,  geology,  geodesy, 
meteorology,  statistics,  zoology,  entomology, 
medicine,  architecture,  ship-building,  etc.  The 
clerk  desiring  to  become  a  technical  assistant  in 
any  scientific  branch  of  Government  work  should 
outline  a  course  of  home  study  upon  the  particular 
line  that  he  chooses,  in  the  event  a  college  course 
is  inaccessible.  Any  scientist  will  be  glad  to 
guide  the  aspiring  clerk  in  providing  a  proper 
curriculum  This  course  of  study  and  reading 
should  not  be  prolonged  to  a  degree  of  tedium; 
but  it  should  be  to  the  point  and  include  the 
best  thought  of  the  profession.  He  should  also 
keep  himself  well  informed  in  current  literature 
and  world  progress,  and  give  particular  notice 
to  changes  in  the  regulations  regarding  the 
publication  or  editing  of  Government  papers. 

Technical  clerkships  often  lead  into  the  pro- 
fessions, one  reason  why  the  supply  of  clerical 
assistants   so   qualified    is   not   greater.      It   can 


198     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

readily  be  seen  that  a  clerk  qualified  to  consult 
with  his  chief  should  naturally  aspire  to  a  higher 
place.  In  truth,  the  young  men  taking  up  clerical 
work  of  a  technical  nature  usually  develop  into 
scientists  or  executive  officers.  It  would,  there- 
fore, appear  that  the  opportunities  for  technical 
clerks  are  bound  to  increase  far  beyond  their 
present  excellent  status. 

Stenography. —Relatively  considered  there  is 
no  branch  of  civil-service  work  in  which  the 
opportunities  excel  those  offered  in  the  field  of 
shorthand.  Of  course,  stenography  is,  with  the 
exception  of  a  few  positions,  a  minor  grade  of 
work;  yet  the  openings  it  offers  are  so  numerous 
and  the  chances  for  advancement  to  very  high 
positions  so  promising  that  it  is  distinctly  advis- 
able for  a  young  man  to  look  well  into  the  ad- 
vantages of  mastering  this  art  when  seeking  the 
civil  service.  There  are  to-day  numbers  of 
administrative  positions  filled  by  one-time  ste- 
nographers. 

The  nature  of  stenographic  positions  is  such 
that  confidential  relations  are  almost  sure  to  be 
established  between  the  executive  heads  of  offices 
and  the  stenographic  corps.  Relations  of  this 
kind  are  particularly  desirable  inasmuch  as  they 
offer  chances  of  demonstrating  one's  capacity, 
and  it  is  but  natural  and  logical  that  executives 
should  turn  to  persons  whom  they  know  are 
capable  when  filling  vacancies  in  the  higher 
branches  of  Federal  work.     The  stenographer  is 


Opportunities  199 

often  called  upon  to  work  overtime;  but,  to 
compensate  for  this  extra  work,  his  future 
bright  if  he  has  the  sense  to  see  it.  Private 
secretaries  are  invariably  stenographers,  and  it 
is  now  quite  customary  for  department  and 
bureau  heads  to  promote  their  private  secretaries 
to  such  places  as  chief  clerk,  executive  offi< 
assistant  secretary,  and  United  States  attorney. 

A  good  stenographer  is  not  only  expert  with 
the  pen,  but  he  has  education  and  judgment. 
He  is  far  from  a  mere  machine;  when  he  gets 
into  the  ruts  he  is  lost.  The  Government  ste- 
nographer should  have  a  broad  education.  He 
should  be  a  college  graduate,  if  possible ;  or, 
if  this  be  out  of  reach,  he  should  be  well  read  and 
know  something  of  the  things  that  are  taughl  in 
college.  He  should  have  dignity,  tact,  ability, 
and  diplomacy  to  insure  advancement. 

As  in  other  branches  of  Federal  work,  there  are 
specialties  for  the  stenographer,  such  as  court 
reporting  which  usually  leads  into  the  legal 
profession,  secretarial  work  which  indicates  ad- 
ministrative positions  as  his  goal,  scientific  ste- 
nography which  often  places  him  in  the  ranks  of 
natural  or  applied  science,  and  general  reporting 
which  rather  points  to  a  professional  car 
outside  of  the  Government.  The  Civil  Service 
Commission  has,  for  years,  advertised  the  I 
that  the  supply  of  efficient  male  stenographers 
is  scarcely  equal  to  the  demand;  and,  notwith- 
standing   a    continuous    stream    of    shorthand 


200     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

eligibles,  the  call  for  more  grows  insistent.  This 
is  due  largely  to  the  vacancies  created  by  pro- 
motion from  the  stenographic  ranks,  a  condition 
that  speaks  well  for  this  class  of  service. 

Stenography  is  a  peculiar  occupation  in  that 
there  are  but  two  degrees  of  ability:  very  good, 
and  very  bad.  A  good  stenographer  is  the  most 
valuable  assistant  that  an  executive  can  have, 
and  a  bad  one  opens  the  way  to  all  kinds  of 
inefficiency.  There  is  no  half-way  resting-place 
in  this  vocation,  and  those  equipped  with  the 
art  of  shorthand  should  bear  this  in  mind  when 
offering  their  services  to  the  Government. 

Editorial  Work.  —The  Government  office 
offers  good  opportunities  for  persons  having  the 
ability  to  edit  and  supervise  the  preparation  of 
publications.  Government  reports  and  papers 
have  long  been  a  source  of  facetious  comment 
and  it  must  be  confessed  that  there  has  been 
much  cause  for  this.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  there 
is  an  exceedingly  small  amount  of  the  vast  quan- 
tity of  publications  that  has  merit  from  a  literary 
viewpoint. 

While  it  is  not  maintained  that  the  highest 
grade  of  literary  production  must  issue  from  the 
Government  press,  it  is  reasonable  to  expect 
some  literary  merit.  Much  of  the  work  now 
put  forth  is  stiff,  of  clumsy  construction,  abounds 
in  tautology,  and  bears  the  earmarks  of  strenuous 
effort  in  creation.  The  tendency  is  toward  self- 
exploitation  and  the  enlargement  of  small  things 


.  iRBAfl/lCAUf    W*l 

Opportunities  joi 

to  create  a  favorable  opinion.  Pew  persons  now 
in  the  civil  service  have  the  gift  of  writing  lucid, 
concise,  and  comprehensive  English.  It  is  3 
relevant  to  take  up  the  cause  of  this  shortcoming 
in  persons  who  are  otherwise  well  qualified  and 
who  should  be  able  to  write  a  few  pages  of  English 
without  stumbling  over  words. 

One  of  the  principal  subjects  put  out  by  the 
Civil  Service  Commission  in  its  basis  examination 
is  the  "copying  from  rough  draft."  The  practice 
of  examining  applicants  in  their  ability  to  unravel 
such  miserable  tangles  is  a  more  pointed  hint 
on  the  literary  capacity  of  Government  authors 
than  pages  of  comment.  It  betrays  a  condition 
in  Government  offices  to  be  found  nowhere  else. 
The  idea  of  a  presumably  competent  official 
sitting  at  his  desk  and  scribbling  off  a  jumble 
of  confusion  is  objectionable,  to  say  the  least, 
and  appears  to  be  due  to  haste  to  get  into  print. 
While  it  is  true  that  few  persons  have  the  gift 
of  putting  their  thoughts  on  paper  without  a 
second  writing,  there  is  no  excuse  for  tangled 
rhetoric  and  ridiculous  composition  in  which  big 
words  of  doubtful  meaning  are  freely  used. 

The  indications  point  to  decided  improvement 
in  official  publications  and  this  improvement 
must  come  largely  through  the  censorship  of  the 
editorial  assistant.  This  docs  not  mean  n  < 
proof-reading  and  blue-penciling  variations  from 
copy;  any  intelligent  clerk  can  do  that  with 
half  an  hour's  practice.     It  comprises  the  art  of 


202     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

English  composition.  Some  bureaus  now  employ 
censors  of  correspondence  whose  duty  it  is  to  see 
that  the  matter  prepared  for  the  chief's  signature 
is  in  proper  form  and  succinctly  stated.  The 
censorship  system  will  be  extended  and  the 
results  are  sure  to  be  the  best. 

Translating.' — Since  the  acquisition  of  the 
Philippines  and  the  strengthening  of  American 
influence  in  the  East  it  has  become  evident  that 
closer  relations  with  Oriental  nations  will  be  the 
result.  Many  questions  affecting  the  citizens  of 
this  country  in  their  dealings  with  the  Eastern 
peoples  will  arise,  not  to  mention  deeper  problems 
of  politics  and  diplomacy.  The  satisfactory 
settlement  of  these  questions  will  involve  the 
use  of  Oriental  tongues  as  well  as  English.  East- 
ern languages  are  expansive,  and  extravagant 
verbiage  is  often  used  to  convey  the  simplest 
ideas.  In  our  relations  with  Oriental  nations, 
therefore,  we  should  know  something  of  their 
languages  as  well  as  customs. 

There  is  no  better  way  to  understand  a  people 
than  by  talking  to  them  in  their  native  tongue. 
Few  native  Americans  have  even  the  barest 
conception  of  Chinese  and  Japanese.  The  field 
of  Oriental  tongues  is  all  but  untouched,  and  now 
is  the  time  to  prepare  for  future  necessities.  The 
United  States  Government  will  surely  call  for 
the  services  of  native  Americans  familiar  with 
Eastern  languages,  particularly  Japanese,  in  the 
near    future.       Persons    familiar    with    Oriental 


Opportunities  203 

tongues  will  be  in  demand  to  fill  diplomatic  1 
consular  posts  and  should  possess  qualificati 
other  than  the  mere  ability  to  put  the  words  of 
one  language  into  those  of  another.  They  should 
be  so  liberally  educated  that  this  Government 
could  appoint  them  to  positions  requiring  diplo- 
matic and  executive  ability.  The  Japanese  and 
Chinese  translators  should  be  college  graduates 
and  have  a  fair  understanding  of  interna- 
tional law  and  etiquette,  and  should  be  quali- 
fied to  represent  this  country  with  dignity  and 
equity. 

There  is  little  doubt  that  there  will  also  be 
demand  for  translators  of  Oriental  languages  to 
fill  departmental  positions  of  a  more  or  less 
clerical  character.  In  such  cases  the  official 
duties  would  merely  consist  of  rendering  docu- 
ments into  English  and  vice  versa,  and  in  some 
instances  involve  speaking  the  language. 

Those  who  are  in  the  field  when  a  call  is  made 
usually  have  greater  success  than  those  who 
enter  later.  And  just  now  the  field  of  translating 
Oriental  tongues  is  practically  clear. 

Library  Methods. — A  knowledge  of  library 
science  offers  good  opportunities  for  high-grade 
clerks.  Few  bureaus  are  without  a  library  adapted 
to  their  particular  needs.  As  professional  libra- 
rians command  high  salaries,  the  care  of  th< 
small  libraries  devolves  upon  bright,  well  informed 
clerks.  Few  persons  know  how  to  use  a  library, 
and  a  clerk  with  a  specialty  in  library  science  is 


204     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

a  valuable  member  of  an  office  staff  having  no 
professional  librarian. 

A  librarian's  work  consists  of  a  multitude  of 
duties  in  addition  to  sitting  at  a  desk  and  giving 
out  books ;  they  comprise  the  wide  field  of  biblio- 
graphy. The  librarian  of  a  Government  office 
will  keep  the  staff  informed  of  the  latest  literature 
bearing  upon  their  work,  prepare  reference  lists, 
verify  references  to  authorities,  criticise  the 
literary  merits  of  manuscripts  submitted  for 
publication,  and  maintain  a  complete  card  index 
system.  The  office  archives  and  original  records 
are  put  into  the  custody  of  the  librarian,  and  it 
is  his  duty  to  know  without  delay  just  where  to 
lay  his  hands  upon  the  records.  Methods  of 
keeping  records  and  filing  documents  come  within 
his  jurisdiction. 

A  clerk  taking  up  library  methods  must  have 
an  education  back  of  his  ambition.  A  college 
degree  is  not  an  absolute  necessity,  but  is  very 
near  to  it.  The  man  or  woman  of  ordinary 
education  cannot  hope  to  make  such  work  a  suc- 
cess, for  its  very  nature  requires  broad  learning; 
and,  as  libraries  are  conducted  at  present,  modern 
ideas  must  have  full  swing.  The  day  of  the 
dusty  cob-webbed  library  is  gone;  this  is  the 
day  of  the  used  book.  The  clerk  with  library 
science  as  his  specialty  should  seek  a  place  in  an 
office  having  no  librarian,  and  so  utilize  his 
resources  and  ingenuity  in  bringing  order  out 
of   confusion.      If   he    possess   the    capacity,   his 


Opportunities  205 

prospects  are  bright  for  a  high  place  in  thai  class 
of  work.  Clerks  with  literary  predilection  will 
find  library  work  congenial.  The  pay  for  this 
grade  of  work  varies  from  $1200  to  $1800  a 
year.  The  associations  are  almost  entirely  with 
persons  of  education  and  refinement. 

Statistics.  —The  scientific  tabulation  and 
analysis  of  statistics  has  come  to  play  an  im- 
portant role  in  the  country's  affairs.  Light  has 
been  thrown  upon  a  number  of  national  questions 
by  the  statistician,  notably  immigration  and 
foreign  commerce.  There  are  now  several  large 
offices  whose  entire  time  is  devoted  to  gathering, 
tabulating,  and  analyzing  statistics;  and  the 
demand  from  industrial,  agricultural,  and  com- 
mercial interests  is  increasing  for  this  kind  of 
information.  The  collection  of  data  is  conducted 
by  clerks,  the  analyzing  is  done  by  experts,  and 
the  distribution  of  the  information  is  in  charge 
of  the  administrative  officers. 

The  Government  statistician  must  be,  above 
all  else,  a  practical  man ;  he  must  have  an  analytic- 
al mind  and  a  brain  trained  to  grasp  the  com- 
mercial value  of  his  findings.  There  are  splendid 
opportunities  for  men  of  these  qualifications 
and  the  future  promises  better.  The  pay  ranges 
from  $1200  to  $3000  a  year,  according  to 
sponsibility  and  the  class  of  work  undertaken. 

The  Consular  Service.  —Recent  legislation 
has  put  the  Consular  Service  on  an  excellent 
footing  and  this  corps  now  offers  fine  opportunities 


206     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

for  men  ambitious  of  a  career  in  the  American 
foreign  service.  As  now  operated,  the  Consular 
Service  is  probably  as  near  an  ideal  merit  system 
as  may  be  found.  Since  re-organization  the 
whole  system  is  on  the  merit  basis.  Permission 
for  taking  the  examination  must  be  obtained 
from  the  President.  The  examination  is  one 
that  only  a  college  graduate  or  one  possessed  of 
an  equivalent  amount  of  learning  can  hope  to 
pass.  Entrance  is  made  in  the  lower  places  and 
promotions  made  up  the  line. 

The  pay  of  consuls  ranges  from  $2000  to 
$12,000  a  year.  This  range  of  pay  is  not  as  wide 
as  the  incomes  derived  from  private  business, 
but  the  compensations  in  the  way  of  permanent 
office,  pleasant  duties,  and  congenial  associations 
promise  well  for  persons  desiring  a  high  grade  of 
service.  In  fact,  no  other  branch  of  the  Federal 
service,  with  the  exception  of  the  diplomatic 
corps,  offers  better  inducements  in  the  way  of 
an  honorable  career  than  the  Consular  Service. 
The  freedom  from  bureaucracy,  independence  of 
action,  and  the  opportunity  to  aid  American 
commercial  interests  are  worthy  of  careful  con- 
sideration by  any  one  looking  for  opportunities 
in  the  public  service. 

The  future  promises  exceedingly  well  for  the 
Consular  Service,  and  persons  entering  it  may 
look  forward  to  a  pleasant  and  profitable  career. 

Patent  Investigation.  —The  human  mind  is 
so  prolific  in  ideas  that  the  Government  is  com- 


Opportunities  207 

pelled    to    employ    several    hundred 
examine  the  inventions  resulting  from  ntal 

activity.  Every  invention  is  examined  as  to  its 
originality  before  letters  patent  are  issued  covering 
it.  Sometimes  inventions  are  stolen  and  sought 
to  be  patented,  and  sometimes  honest  duplication 
takes  place;  in  either  case  it  is  the  patent  expert's 
business  to  ascertain  whether  the  claims  are  just 
and  whether  the  applicant  is  entitled  to  receive 
a  patent. 

The  range  of  patent  examination  covers   the 
whole  field  of  invention,  from  which  it  will  rightly 
be  surmised  that  the  patent  examiners  must  hi 
a  thorough  education  in  the  physical  and   me- 
chanical  sciences.      Nothing   short   of   a   coll 
education  will  answer  the  purpose.     The  work 
of  the  patent  office  is  divided  into  a  large  number 
of  departments,   one  or  more  experts  being  as- 
signed to  each  division.    Thus,  a  corps  of  chemists 
handle  patent  medicines,  mechanical  experts 
assigned    to    the    immense    field    of    machinery, 
others  have  charge  of  household  specialties,  and 
so  on  through  the  interminable  list  of  inventions. 

The  staff  of  examiners  is  divided  into  five 
grades  and  promotions  are  made  up  the  line. 
Entrance  is  at  $1500  a  year,  each  grade  rising 
by  increments  of  not  less  than  S300  a  year  to 
$2700.  The  patent  expert  who  is  also  a  lawyer 
is  particularly  valuable,  as  the  nature  of  the 
patent  business  involves  legal  technicalities. 
Owing   to   the   high    requirements   and    diffii 


2o8     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

examinations  prescribed,  it  is  almost  impossible 
to  secure  a  sufficient  number  of  eligibles  to  supply 
the  demand,  inasmuch  as  vacancies,  especially  in 
the  higher  grades,  are  very  numerous.  These 
vacancies  are  caused  by  private  concerns,  espe- 
cially patent  law  firms,  drawing  upon  the  Patent 
Office  for  experts.  Patent  examiners  qualified  as 
attorneys  have  no  trouble  in  effecting  partner- 
ships with  legal  firms  whereby  their  incomes 
are  increased  from  two  to  fivefold.  The  forming 
of  such  connections  of  course  necessitates  resigna- 
tion from  the  Patent  Office. 

Within  recent  years  numbers  of  young  men 
have  secured  appointment  as  patent  examiners, 
studied  law,  and  served  several  years  for  the 
purpose  of  qualifying  themselves  to  command 
lucrative  salaries  elsewhere  or  to  form  partner- 
ships in  law  firms.  This  practice  appears  to  be 
increasing  and  the  Government  faces  a  problem 
as  a  result.  So  numerous  have  resignations 
become  that  in  some  years  they  have  numbered 
fully  one  third  of  the  whole  corps  of  examiners. 
This  is  rough  on  the  Government,  but  it  is  clover 
for  the  individual.  There  is  only  one  way  that 
seems  likely  to  put  an  end  to  these  wholesale 
resignations  and  that  is  to  increase  all  salaries 
very  substantially.  Outside  competition  must  be 
met  if  the  Government  hope  to  retain  its  best 
patent  examiners. 

Looked  at  from  the  individual's  point  of  view, 
the  opportunities  in  this  line  of  work  are  golden 


Opportunities  209 

both    from    a    financial    consideration    and    the 
aspect    of    professional    association.      The    v. 
itself  is  of  a  kind  to  prevent  mental  corrosion,  as 
it    is    absolutely    necessary    to    keep    aim 
progress;   there  is  no  chance  to  grow  stiff  in  the 
harness. 

Clerical  Work  Involving  Law. — The  civil 
service  provides  a  large  number  of  places  in  which 
a  knowledge  of  law  is  extremely  valuable.  The 
higher  clerical  posts  under  the  State  Department 
and  in  such  branches  as  the  bureaus  of  Corpora- 
tions, Manufactures,  Insular  Affairs,  Immigration 
and  Naturalization,  and  American  Republics,  the 
Interstate  Commerce  Commission,  and  the  finan- 
cial bureaus  of  the  Treasury  Department,  require 
considerable  knowledge  of  law.  These  places  are 
usually  filled  by  promotion  or  transfer  of  suitable 
eligibles. 

Anomalous  as  it  may  seem,  particularly  in 
view  of  the  excessive  number  of  graduates  in 
law  throughout  the  country,  the  clerical  corps 
of  the  civil  service  is  deficient  in  legal  knowlf ' 
The  Government  offers  many  modest  opportuni- 
ties for  clerks  with  legal  education,  these  op- 
portunities taking  the  direction  of  the  better 
salaried  places —those  paying  from  $1200  to 
$2000  a  year.  The  demand  for  clerks  specialized 
in  law  is  considerable  and  the  chances  for  pro- 
motion more  favorable  than  for  those  not  so 
qualified. 

Those  aspiring  to  be  administrative  assistants 


210     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

and  chief  clerks  must  be  graduates  of  a  law  school 
or  its  equivalent,  and  be  familiar  with  depart- 
mental regulations  and  practice  if  they  would 
attain  the  greatest  success.  The  policy  of  filling 
the  better-paid  places  with  lawyers  is  expand- 
ing, irrespective  of  the  political  aspect  of  the 
Administration. 

Agriculture.' — Experts  in  agriculture  are  in 
demand  by  the  United  States  Government.  The 
supply  of  available  material  is  somewhat  limited, 
and  the  Federal  bureaus  now  find  some  difficulty 
in  retaining  experts  owing  to  the  outside  demand. 
Our  agricultural  interests  appear  to  be  finding  a 
new  basis,  one  in  which  science  and  business  go 
hand  in  hand.  The  chemistry  of  soils,  horti- 
culture, plant  diseases,  and  intensive  farming 
are  now  receiving  close  attention.  The  solution 
of  these  problems  involves  the  practical  appli- 
cation of  science.  Mere  planting  and  harvesting 
are  no  longer  satisfactory  to  our  farmers;  they 
want  more,  and  naturally  turn  to  the  Government 
to  supply  advice. 

The  Department  of  Agriculture  has  grown 
from  a  small  affair  into  one  of  the  most  valuable 
branches  of  the  National  Government  and  imparts 
its  discoveries  to  the  farmers  without  charge. 
The  agricultural  expert  may  look  at  his  op- 
portunities from  two  viewpoints:  financial,  and 
scientific.  As  a  financial  proposition  he  receives 
less  than  is  paid  for  a  similar  service  by  private 
interests.     Thus,  an  expert  receiving  from  $3000 


Opportunities  2 1  i 

to  $4000  annually  from  the  Government  would 
command  from  $6000  to  $10,000  elsewhi 
Superintendents  of  large  farms,  ranches,  or 
plantations  receive  from  $2000  to  $10,000  a 
year;  under  the  Department  of  Agriculture 
parallel  ability  could  scarcely  hope  to  reach  over 
$4000. 

The  scientific  opportunities  for  the  agricultural 
expert  are  especially  good.  There  are  scores  of 
problems  to  be  solved  and  men  are  needed  to 
devote  scientific  thought  to  them.  Men  who 
hope  to  make  a  great  success  in  advancing  the 
country's  agricultural  interests  should  examine 
the  Government  field  before  deciding  upon  a 
line  of  action.  The  Government  presents  unusual 
opportunities  for  research  at  its  experiment 
stations  and  investigating  bureaus. 

There     is     abundant     opportunity     for     some 
scientist  to  gain  world-wide  and  lasting  fame  in 
devising    a    practical    means    of    controlling    tin- 
various  scale  diseases  of  fruit  trees,  "yellows" 
of  peaches,  pear  blight,  and  the  boll  weevil  of  the 
cotton  plant  which  seriously  threatens  our  cotton- 
growing  industry.     The  demand  for  fine,  per' 
fruit   is  increasingly  strong  throughout  the  east- 
ern markets;  this  would  suggest  work  in  develop- 
ing varieties  of  fruit  suitable  for  growing  in  tin- 
eastern  climate.     Insect  pests  of  plant  and  animal 
life  are  sure  to  receive  more  attention.    Numer 
important  discoveries  have  been  made  by  I  i 
ernment  investigators  and  it  is  safe  to  say  that 


212     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

the  future  has  in  store  many  more  honors  in  this 
line  of  research  work. 

Owing  to  facilities  for  conducting  experiments, 
the  Government  presents  unusual  opportunities 
for  soil  investigations.  We  now  have  little  actual 
knowledge  of  soils.  There  is  no  reason  why  soil 
chemistry  should  not  be  developed  to  such  an 
extent  as  to  double  the  products  of  a  given  farm, 
a  problem  that  is  just  now  upon  us  owing  to 
the  growth  of  our  population  with  a  conse- 
quent increased  demand  for  food  products.  Many 
thousands  of  farmers  to-day  are  attempting  to 
raise  crops  on  unsuitable  soil.  The  nation  has 
honors  for  men  who  can  give  good  advice  in  this 
respect. 

When  all  is  said  about  opportunities  in  the 
public  service,  the  ambitious  man  must  bear  in 
mind  that  preparation  and  capability  are  the 
qualities  that  count.  Lack  of  these  two  essentials 
makes  a  man  ordinary.  Suggestion:  Seize  the 
first  opportunity  and  drive  it  with  a  master's 
whip. 


CHAPTER  XI 

THE   NATION'S    PROBLEMS 

EVERY  nation  has  its  problems  to  solve;  the 
greater  the  nation,  the  more  serious  the 
problems.  It  is  the  division  of  opinion  as 
the  best  means  of  settling  public  questions  that 
brings  about  the  formation  of  political  parties. 
Public  opinion  is  a  mighty  power  but  it  is  not 
always  a  safe  guide,  as  the  public  acts  largely 
upon  impulse.  We  have  in  our  national  history 
several  conspicuous  examples  of  official  deference 
to  popular  clamor  which  resulted  disastrously  to 
the  country.  The  Embargo  Act  of  1807,  the 
imbroglio  with  Mexico  in  1846,  and  the  "carpet- 
bag" regime  during  the  ten  years  immediately 
following  the  close  of  the  Civil  War  are  exam; 
in  point  that  this  country  will  not  forget.  All 
were  brought  about  by  unreasoning  agitation  and 
all  could  have  been  avoided. 

The  United  States  has  profited  by  past  mistakes, 
but  it  has  by  no  means  reached  a  point   \\i 
serious    problems    are    no    longer    encountei 
Trifling  questions  not  infrequently  develop  into 
grave,  complicated  problems.     It  is  well  that  all 

213 


214     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

questions  should  have  the  people's  attention,  but 
they  should  have  special  significance  to  the 
office-holder. 

It  is  the  duty  of  every  person  in  Government 
service,  whether  in  a  high  or  a  low  capacity, 
to  keep  informed  on  the  problems  of  to-morrow 
as  well  as  those  of  to-day;  not  in  a  sordid  spirit 
that  thinks  of  self  first,  but  in  a  patriotic  sense 
that  puts  the  nation's  interests  ahead  of  the 
individual's.  The  public  servant  should  do  well 
all  tasks  that  come  to  hand,  but  that  is  not  all; 
he  should  see  farther  than  pay  day  and  think 
beyond  the  confines  of  official  hours.  It  is  a 
great  privilege  to  aid  in  solving  the  national 
problems  and  in  obtaining  results  that  mean 
happiness  for  succeeding  generations;  for,  how- 
ever well  the  public  employe  may  serve  the 
present,  his  influence  must  be  felt  in  years  to 
come.  It  is  therefore  incumbent  upon  him  to 
give  heed  to  the  signs  of  the  times  if  he  would 
accomplish  the  greatest  good  for  the  greatest 
number. 

There  are  to-day  several  questions,  of  a  more 
or  less  important  nature,  before  the  nation  for 
settlement.  Some  of  them  have  attained  suffi- 
cient growth  to  be  incorporated  with  the  principles 
of  our  political  parties;  others  are  still  embry- 
onic. Whatever  their  status  the  public  office- 
holder should  be  the  first  to  give  them  serious 
thought,  that  he  may  be  prepared  to  discuss 
them    or   undertake   their   solution    intelligently. 


The  Nation's  Problem  215 

The  nation  looks  to  the  Administration  for 
leadership,  and  it  is  the  duty  of  Federal  en  ployes 
to  take  this  place  and  be  ready  to  assume  the 
work  when  the  call  comes. 

Colonial  Government.— First  among  the 
questions  that  now  confront  the  Government  is 
that  of  colonial  administration.  The  United 
States  had  lived  within  herself  for  over  one  hun- 
dred years  when  the  grave  responsibility  of  caring 
for  8,000,000  strange  people,  many  of  them  sav- 
ages, was  thrust  upon  her.  It  is  not  to  the  point 
to  discuss  the  circumstances  that  brought  about 
this  responsibility.  Whatever  differences  of  politi- 
cal opinion  exist,  our  insular  possessions  now  li 
to  the  central  Government  for  guidance  and 
protection.  It  is  our  plain  duty  to  provide  the 
best  government  possible  for  these  our  people. 
It  matters  little  whether  the  Constitution  extends 
to  "possessions"  of  this  country  or  whether 
those  possessions  shall  ever  come  into  full  brother- 
hood so  far  as  our  duty  is  concerned.  The  people 
of  the  islands  have  a  claim  upon  this  country 
and  it  is  incumbent  upon  us  to  see  that  they 
advance  in  the  arts  of  civilization  with  the  parent 
country  and  that  they  prosper  in  their  under- 
takings. 

No  colonial  government  can  be  successful  with 
a  discontented,  disheartened,  and  disloyal  people. 
Sullen  unrest  is  a  bad  sign;  retrogression  is 
worse.  On  the  other  hand,  a  popular  approval 
often  becomes  hysterical  and   is  not    a   sure   in- 


216     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

dication  of  what  is  best.  Colonial  government 
must  apply  certain  broad  principles  that  pertain 
to  the  home  government,  such,  for  example,  as 
the  enjoyment  of  personal  liberty,  legal  and 
equity  rights,  protection  against  foes,  guarantees 
in  property  matters,  and  the  freedom  of  the 
press.  It  must  be  remembered,  however,  that 
several  different  races  live  under  the  same  ad- 
ministration provided  by  the  central  Government 
and  that  these  races  differ  in  institutions  from 
each  other  and  from  us.  Laws  suited  to  one 
race  may  not  meet  the  requirements  of  another; 
to  some,  liberty  may  mean  license;  the  elective 
franchise  may  be  the  most  valued  gift  to  certain 
portions  of  our  colonial  peoples,  while  others 
may  have  to  be  ruled  with  a  strong  and  arbitrary 
hand.  In  some  cases  the  social  institutions  are 
radically  at  variance  from  ours.  There  is  a  wide 
difference  in  a  score  of  directions,  all  of  which 
must  be  given  careful  attention. 

A  number  of  first-class  Powers  have  had  hun- 
dreds of  years  of  experience  in  colonial  govern- 
ment, notwithstanding  which  mistakes  of  policy 
are  sometimes  made,  resulting  in  serious  industrial 
and  political  conditions.  The  question  of  colonial 
government  is  one  of  the  highest  importance  to 
countries  like  England,  France,  The  Netherlands, 
Germany,  and  Italy,  whose  officers  and  employes 
are  trained  to  the  work  of  administration.  On 
the  other  hand,  this  is  an  entirely  new  under- 
taking for  the  United  States.     The  work  of  this 


The  Nation's  Problem  --17 

country    in    colonial   administration    has    by 
means  passed  the  experimental  stage,  and   it    is 
of  the  utmost  importance  that  the  problem   be 
studied  in  principle  rather  than  on  the  basil 
party  platforms. 

Writers  on  economic  and  political  themes 
wield  much  influence,  but  the  real  shaping  of 
destiny  lies  distinctly  with  our  office-holders. 
They  have  the  execution  of  policies  entrusted  to 
them  and  a  wise  procedure  in  this  respect  means 
far-reaching  prestige.  Success  or  failure  depends 
upon  individual  effort. 

We  lack  men  trained  for  colonial  service  and, 
what   is   more  significant,   there   seems   to   b 
pretty   general   impression  that   special   training 
is  not  necessary,  that  any  one  whom  fancy  dic- 
tates may  take  responsible  colonial  posts.     Tin- 
few   years   that   our   Government   has   stood    in 
paternal  relations  to  dependencies  have  demon- 
strated the  necessity  for  men  with  special  skill 
in  solving  the  intricacies  that  arise.     Our  short 
experience  would  seem  to  indicate  that  persons 
anticipating  colonial  assignment  should   hav< 
university    training    and,    in    addition,    be    well 
informed  in  colonial  and  international  law, 
parative    religions,    history — especially    colonial, 
ethnology,  languages,  sanitation  and  health  pro- 
cedures,  educational  methods,   and   the   colonial 
systems    of    England,     France,    Germany,     1 
Netherlands,  and  Italy.    There  is  no  reason  why 
persons    so    qualified    should    not    meet    a    high 


218     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

degree  of  success  in  handling  the  problems  of 
colonial  government. 

Oriental  Politics. — Closely  allied  with  colo- 
nial government  is  the  new  and  equally  experi- 
mental question  of  Oriental  relations.  It  is 
plain  that  we  do  not  understand  the  Eastern 
peoples  well  enough.  Nations  that  have  with- 
stood the  assaults  of  centuries  are  founded  upon 
certain  principles  worthy  of  any  race  of  men. 
Because  the  Eastern  peoples  see  the  world  through 
eyes  other  than  our  own,  it  is  no  indication  that 
either  they  or  we  shall  win  in  the  struggle  for 
the  survival  of  the  fittest. 

There  is  a  destiny  for  this  country  in  the  Far 
East;  it  may  be  geographical,  political,  com- 
mercial, or  philanthropic.  Three  great  countries 
bound  the  Pacific  Ocean — America,  Japan,  and 
China.  Just  what  part  each  of  these  three  coun- 
tries shall  play  in  dominating  this  vast  realm 
remains  for  the  future  to  tell.  All  nations  have 
a  right  to  extend  their  commercial  influence; 
but  too  much  aggression  creates  jealousies  and 
trouble.  The  nations  of  the  world  have  their 
eyes  on  the  East,  and  it  ill  becomes  this  country 
to  live  within  itself  when  the  call  comes  for 
friendly  intercourse  of  mutual  advantage.  The 
flag  is  planted  in  the  East;  just  how  far  the 
Monroe  Doctrine  shall  follow  the  flag  remains  to 
be  seen. 

The  whole  Eastern  question  is  one  for  the 
near  future  to  adjust  and  concerns  no  one  more 


The  Nation's  Problem 

than    the    Government    attache.      Whether    the 
Federal  servant  reside  at    Washington  or  be 
tailed  to  Manila,  it  is  his  unquestionable  duty 
to  take  a  quiet,  rational,  conservative   interest 

in  this  branch  of  world  politics. 

Economics. — Our  country  seems  to  he  on  tin- 
threshold  of  a  new  era  in  economics.  Business 
interests  have  attained  such  proportions  that 
commercial  enterprises  no  longer  can  be  said  to 
be  strictly  private;  they  have  become  concerns 
in  which  the  public  has  easements.  Our  corpora  t  e 
establishments  have  reached  a  gigantic  size  and 
their  doings  now  concern  every  citizen. 

Commercial  development  has  proceeded  by 
immense,  rapid  strides;  but,  as  with  the  swiftly 
flowing  river  which  cuts  a  channel  for  its  waters 
to  flow  more  deeply  and  slowly,  it  is  possible 
that  the  widespread  spirit  of  speculation  will 
subside  for  one  of  investment.  This  does  not 
refer  to  our  periodic  spasms  of  industrial  and 
financial  stringency,  but  to  their  fundamental 
causes  which  only  years  can  adjust.  Whether 
the  apprehension  generally  felt  is  seeming  or 
real  remains  to  be  determined.  At  any  n 
much  agitation  has  already  been  launched  looking 
toward  corporate  regulation  and  public  owner- 
ship of  quasi-public  institutions,  such  as  conn 
carriers  doing  interstate  business.  Public  owner- 
ship is  not  new  to  the  world;  to  a  limited  extent 
it  is  now  in  successful  operation  in  si 
class  countries.     Whether  the  operation  of  rail- 


220     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

roads,  express  lines,  and  telegraph  systems  can 
be  carried  on  by  our  Government  successfully,  or 
whether  their  operation  would  create  deficits,  as 
is  now  the  case  in  the  Post  Office  Department, 
is  a  problem  for  economists  to  study. 

The  tendency  to  inject  these  questions  into 
the  precepts  of  political  parties  is  already  ap- 
parent. Perhaps  the  movement  will  abort  as 
suddenly  as  it  arose;  mayhap  it  will  be  carried 
to  the  polls  and  prevail.  The  interest  that  the 
Government  now  takes  in  regulating  interstate 
commerce  is  a  sign  of  the  future.  It  is  the  merest 
conjecture  to  predict  the  outcome. 

Considered  in  the  abstract,  it  is  certain  that 
a  readjustment  is  now  under  way.  Our  infant 
country  has  become  a  giant  and  it  must  take 
a  giant's  place  in  world  progress.  It  is  incumbent 
upon  the  progressive  man  to  keep  informed  on 
the  nation's  economical  trend. 

Suffrage.— Americans  have  long  considered 
the  elective  franchise  as  the  foundation  of  a 
democratic  Government.  Lately  a  number  of 
conditions  have  arisen  that  seem  to  shake  their 
confidence  in  this  institution  when  applied  in- 
discriminately to  all  citizens.  The  enactment 
of  the  Fifteenth  Amendment  raised  the  first 
doubt;  putting  the  franchise  into  the  hands  of 
illiterate  aliens  increased  the  doubt;  and  now 
we  have  come  face  to  face  with  the  question  as 
a  result  of  the  acquisition  of  insular  territory. 

There   is   danger   in   unlimited   suffrage,   there 


The  Nation's  Problem 

may  be  as  much  danger  in  limiting  it  ;  the  '■ 
tends  to  a  low  order  of  government,  the  latter 
toward    monarchy.      Can   this  country    restricl 

suffrage  and  comply  with  the  spirit  of  thi  I 
stitution?  Does  the  Constitution  intend  that 
the  ballot  shall  be  placed  in  the  hands  of  the 
illiterate  and  of  persons  who,  either  by  birth  i 
by  training,  have  no  understanding  of  our  in- 
stitutions? These  are  pertinent  questions  and 
need  special  thought  from  public  servants. 

Public  Health.— Our  country  has  grown  so 
fast  commercially  and  socially,  and  our  people 
have  been  so  intent  on  developing  the  nation's 
resources,  that  the  public  health  has  been  relegal 
largely  to  the  jurisdiction  of  municipalities. 
Within  recent  years  thought  has  undergone 
change. 

It  has   been  demonstrated  that  the  national 
authorities  can  control  epidemic  diseases   by   in- 
stituting rigid  systems  of  quarantine  and  sanita- 
tion.      The    great    epidemic    diseases — bubonic- 
plague,  cholera,  yellow  fever,  and  smallpox- 
no  longer  terrors  for  the  nation.    The  new  watch- 
word  is   prophylaxis.     To  this  end    the  Federal 
Government    has    taken    charge    and    institul 
vigorous   measures   for   the   preservation   of   the 
public  health,   both   as  humanitarian  and   com- 
mercial   measures.      The    medical    inspection    of 
immigrants,  a  system  of  reporting  to  the  Washing- 
ton Government  cases  of  quarantinable  disc 
in  foreign  ports,  and  the  investigation  of  epidemics 


222     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

have  proved  so  practicable  that  the  people  now 
look  to  the  central  Government  for  protection. 

The  demand  for  Federal  supervision  has  become 
so  strong  that  it  has  resulted  in  the  recent  passage 
of  pure  food  and  drug  laws.  The  public-health 
work  now  performed  by  the  United  States  is, 
above  all,  practical  and  has  borne  splendid 
results.  Yet  notwithstanding  the  advances  that 
have  been  made  there  remains  such  an  immense 
amount  undone  that  it  is  safe  to  say  that  this 
branch  of  Federal  activity  is  in  its  infancy.  The 
great  problems  of  tuberculosis,  cancer,  leprosy, 
and  typhoid  fever  remain  to  be  solved.  These 
diseases  are  with  us  and  carry  off  scores  of  thou- 
sands of  victims  to  untimely  death.  Tuber- 
culosis alone  is  responsible  for  at  least  one  seventh 
of  the  deaths  of  persons  between  ten  and  fifty 
years  old — a  period  of  life  that  is  particularly 
valuable  to  the  nation;  little  has  been  done  by 
the  Government  looking  to  the  control  of  this 
ravaging  "  white  plague."  Sanitation  may  control 
typhoid,  but  the  question  as  to  how  far  this 
may  be  carried  is  still  open.  Leprosy  is  a  serious 
menace  in  some  of  our  insular  possessions  and 
the  loathsome  affliction  exists  in  scattered  form 
in  many  parts  of  the  United  States. 

The  problem  of  securing  pure  milk  awaits 
solution.  The  nation  is  growing  rapidly  in 
population,  particularly  in  city  life;  and,  as  many 
infectious  diseases  are  known  to  be  transmitted 
through   the   medium   of   milk,    it   is   important 


The  Nation's  Problem  223 

that  our  cities  be  supplied  with  clean,  whi 
milk.     It  is  well  known  that  thousands  of  infants 
in  American  cities  die  yearly  as  a  d  wit 

of  being  fed  impure  milk;  yet  in  most  of  our 
large  cities  and  towns  the  general  milk  supply 
is  shamelessly  impure.  The  milk  problem  is,  in 
a  measure,  a  local  proposition,  but  the  saving  of 
babies  and  children  is  by  all  means  a  quest  ion 
of  vital  importance  to  the  nation. 

The  future  work  of  the  public  sanitarian  will 
not  only  lie  in  the  control  of  epidemics  but  will 
be  directed  as  well  to  research.  The  solution 
of  great  problems  in  medicine  generally  is  reached 
through  simple  observations.  The  discovery  of 
vaccination  and  the  transmission  of  yellow  fever 
by  the  mosquito  are  two  cases  in  point.  S 
times  such  discoveries  come  by  accident,  but 
the  world  has  now  reached  a  point  where  it  is 
not  satisfied  with  accident;  it  demands  scientific 
research.  Few  physicians  have  the  time  to 
devote  to  experimental  research —work  that  re- 
quires time  and  money  in  its  prosecution;  it 
therefore  devolves  upon  private  philanthro] 
or  public  institutions  to  conduct  original  in- 
vestigations. The  Government  has  already  1  legun, 
in  a  small  way,  medical  research. 

Many   foreign   Governments  maintain    depart- 
ments of  public  health  and  all  of  our  States  operal 
health  boards  as  a  part  of  their  establi 
Some  agitation  has  been  initiated  looking  to 
establishment  of  a  Federal  department  of  health 


224    Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

whose  head  shall  be  a  Cabinet  officer.  Whether 
the  time  is  ripe  for  this  is  a  question.  Whatever 
may  be  the  final  outcome,  it  is  certain  that  the 
public  demands  sanitary  supervision  in  a  much 
wider  sense  than  is  now  practised  by  the  central 
Government. 

Agriculture  and  Forestry.' — The  farming 
interests  of  this  country  own  thousands  of  square 
miles  of  fine  land,  but  the  supply  in  the  hands 
of  the  Government,  once  so  liberal  in  land  gifts, 
is  all  but  exhausted.  The  land  now  owned  by 
the  Government  consists  principally  of  waste 
tracts,  and  forest  and  Indian  reservations.  The 
immense  tracts  available  for  individual  owner- 
ship a  few  years  ago  are  now  being  cut  up  into 
smaller  lots  and  parcelled  out  to  a  large  number 
of  persons.  The  price  of  agricultural  land  con- 
tinues to  increase  owing  to  the  demand  for  farms. 
Tracts  that  a  few  years  ago  were  considered 
waste  are  now  sought,  and  the  Government  is 
making  efforts  to  reclaim  the  desert  by  irrigation 
and  the  swamp  by  drainage.  Timber  grants, 
once  easily  secured  in  large  size,  are  now  cur- 
tailed, much  of  the  timber  lands  owned  by  the 
Government  being  set  aside  for  reservations  and 
parks. 

Two  pregnant  signs  are  indicated  by  these 
conditions:  intensive  farming,  and  forest  con- 
servation. The  agricultural  colleges  of  the  coun- 
try are  doing  much  in  teaching  intensive  farming, 
but  it  remains  for  the  Government  to  solve  the 


The  Nation's  Problem 

great  problem  of  agriculture   for   futun 
tions.     The   people   of  our  country,    pr< 
resources,  know  but  little  of  intensive  farminj 
have  slight  knowledge  of  the  science  of  forestry. 
The  abandoned  farms  of  the  East  must  1 
claimed,  the  denuded  forests  must  be  made   to 
grow  new  timber.     We  have  much  to  learn  in 
this   respect,   as   in   others,    from   our   Euro] 
friends.     Every  inch  of  ground  must  be  made  to 
bring   forth   in   the   thickly   populated   countries 
of  the  Old  World,  and  we  are  fast  coming  to  that 
point.      Our    rapidly    increasing    population    de- 
mands food  and  shelter  and  this  demand  a 
but  increase  with  the  coming  years.     It  would 
seem  that  forestry  in    particular  requires  imme- 
diate attention;    it  now  has  an  excellent  begin- 
ning and  under  continued  good  direction  of  the 
Government  it  will  return  many-fold  results. 

The  day  of  liberal  land  grants,  timber  rights, 
and  mining  concessions  is  past  in  this  country.  A 
wonderful  change  in  industrial  and  agricultural 
conditions  has  taken  place  in  the  past  third  of 
a  century — a  period  short  in  the  life  of  a 
nation.  If  the  signs  of  the  times  count  for  any- 
thing, there  will  be  a  conservation  of  the  nation's 
resources.  The  question  is,  How  shall  this  best 
be  done?  The  private  citizen  has  little  time  to 
devote  to  an  answer.  He  looks  to  the  public 
servant  whose  duty  it  is  to  study  the  problems 
concerning  the  nation's  welfare. 


CHAPTER  XII 

GOVERNMENT  SERVICE  AS  A  CAREER 

THE  adoption  of  a  career  is  a  matter  of  utmost 
importance  to  every  young  man.  The 
youth  looks  eagerly  forward  to  the  time  when 
he  is  master  of  a  vocation;  the  nation  takes  an 
interest  in  him  as  one  who  shall  add  to  the  common 
wealth.  The  ambition  to  take  part  in  the  strife 
is  a  commendable  one;  it  represents  manhood 
and  that  something  in  our  nature  which  is  com- 
monly  termed  "doing  things." 

Sometimes  we  wonder  where  everybody  will 
find  employment.  Our  shops  are  making  journey- 
men out  of  their  army  of  apprentices,  the  com- 
mercial colleges  send  out  thousands  trained  in 
the  theory  of  business,  and  the  universities  pour 
forth  other  thousands  fitted  for  professional 
careers.  But  we  need  them  all — the  mechanic, 
the  tradesman,  the  professional  man,  and  the 
farmer.  Our  country  is  a  lusty  rich  giant;  and 
so  long  as  the  nation  multiplies  in  number  and 
increases  in  thrift  that  long  will  every  man  find 
his  level  of  usefulness.  Families  must  be  pro- 
vided for  and  that  means  labor — physical  or 
mental  labor  means  a  career. 

226 


Government  Service  as  a  Career  227 

Men  could  not  all  choose  the  s.  cupation, 

though  conditions  demanded  it,  for  we  are  dif- 
ferently constituted.  Whatever  occupation  a 
man  takes  up  as  his  life-work  it  is  his  duty  to  be 
a  master  of  it.  However  humble,  however  high, 
the  master  is  the  one  who  reaps  the  best  in  his 
field  of  action.  And  to  become  a  master  in  1 
career  it  is  necessary  to  have  a  love  for  the 
work. 

The  European  system  of  training  the  son  to 
the  father's  trade  is  all  right  for  Europe.  We 
may  come  to  that  some  day;  but  at  present 
the  spirit  of  our  nation  teaches  independence  of 
thought  and  of  action.  American  young  men 
are  not  taught  to  revere  their  father's  calling; 
they  are  taught  to  think  for  themselves  and  to 
work  out  their  own  destinies.  The  right  kind 
of  fathers  and  mothers  are  pretty  much  tin- 
same  the  world  over,  but  the  American  father 
in  particular  is  hardly  satisfied  unless  his  son 
attains  a  higher  success  than  himself.  If  this 
success  lie  in  the  same  work,  it  is  well;  if  the 
sons  adopt  a  different  career  and  build  succ< 
fully,  it  is  a  matter  for  congratulation.  End© 
there  is  a  growing  disposition  in  our  1  tit- 

land  to  encourage  sons  to  eschew  thi  of 

the  father. 

It  is  common  to  find  as  many  occupations  in 
an    American    family    as    there    are    sens.      The 
business  man,  for  example,  advises  his 
take  up  professional  life,  the  mechanic  wants  his 


228     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

boys  to  be  business  men  and  make  money,  the 
farmer  would  like  his  sons  to  become  physicians 
or  lawyers  or  anything  but  farmers,  the  lawyer 
counsels  his  sons  to  become  masters  of  the  en- 
gineering professions,  and  so  on  through  the 
long  list  of  occupations.  Yet  there  is  one  field 
of  activity,  embracing  hundreds  of  thousands, 
broad  in  scope,  high  in  ideals,  and  honorable 
in  duties,  that  is  seldom  thought  of  as  presenting 
opportunities  for  a  career.  Who  ever  heard  of 
a  father  counselling  his  son  to  adopt  Government 
service  as  a  career?  Sometimes  the  sordid  at- 
traction of  politics  appeals  to  the  family's  head; 
but  he  looks  at  the  Government  through  the 
eyes  of  the  gamester,  and  when  it  comes  to  the 
question  of  adopting  public  service  as  a  career 
the  idea  becomes  a  remote  one.  It  is  well  enough 
to  play  at  politics  or  to  spend  a  few  years  in 
t-^ Federal  employ,  thinks  he;  but,  outside  the 
£  officers  of  the  army  and  navy,  no  branch  of  the 
u  Federal  service  occupies  his  serious  attention  as 
y         presenting  opportunities  for  a  son's  career. 

/       As  a  matter  of   fact,  the  United  States    civil 

Y    /      service  does  offer  splendid  chances   for  careers. 

v    I        Compared  with  the  careers  open  to  the  average 

Y      \      young  man  in  other  fields  of  endeavor,  the  Gov- 

\     ernment  offers  more  in  the  amenities  that  make 

\    up  life  than  may  be  found  elsewhere — not  money 

reward,  which,  it  is    repeated,  is    not    a    proper 

gauge  of  successful  life,  but  in  usefulness,  honor, 

and  good  living.     It  is  a  noble  ambition  to  serve 


Government  Service  as  a  Career 

the  State  and  a  choice  privilege  to  help  i 
the  policies  of  a  great  political  party. 

Our  civil  service  to-day  offers  to  young  men  | 
a  wide  field  of  opportunity  where  their  individual 
tastes  may  be  developed  and  where  they   may    \ 
take  up  congenial  work  and  develop  it  according     \ 
b  their  ambition.     They  are  assured  perman< 
enure,  which  is  more  than  is  ofTered  in  pri . 
*ife.     Whatever  may  be  said  for  or  against  life 
tenure  of  office,  the  uneasiness  attendant  upon 
uncertain    tenure    of    position    is    removed    and 
with  it  one  of  the  most  unpleasant  features  of 
the  average  man's  life.     It  is  not  comforting  to 
know  that  your  income  and  hopes  depend  up  I 

the  favor  of  one  man,   which  is  the  case   with        V 
^     employment  in  private  life. 

^H/^*  Not  only  is  tenure  of  office  and  income  secure 

j       under   the    Government   during   good    behavior, 

|   I    but  the  services  performed  are  surrounded  with 

J    a  dignity  not  seen  in  private  life.     The  Govern- 

/     ment    employe    has    the    added    advantages    of 

**    earning    a    comfortable    living,    congenial    work, 

/    short    hours,    long    vacation,    ample    provision 

/      against  sickness,  a  chance  to  educate  himself  and 

[      his  family  and,  most  important  of  all,  time  to 

live.    The  worries  and  haste  to  succeed,  common 

\        in  commercial  life,  are  entirely  absent. 

V.         The  struggle  for  success  is  strenuous.    Business. 

*"  which    is    almost    synonymous    with    American 

life,   has   altogether  too  conspicuous  a   place   in 

our  national  existence;    it  has  conn;  tq  be  a 


230     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

with  us.  There  are  thousands  of  young  men 
in  our  factories  and  offices  struggling  along  on 
less  than  a  living  wage,  hoping  against  hope, 
who  are  fitted  for  better  things.  They  have 
missed  their  calling.  Of  course  some  are  peculiarly 
suited  to  business  life  or  the  mechanical  trades; 
these  should  adopt  such  vocations.  There  is 
no  good  reason,  however,  why  young  men  should 
not  look  to  the  Government  as  offering  careers, 
instead  of  to  the  ever  swelling  tide  of  commer- 
cialism where  the  competition  is  already  keen 
and  growing  keener  every  year. 

The  first  thing  to  do,  for  those  who  contemplate 
Government  service  as  a  career,  is  to  look  over 
the  field  and  get  a  general  idea  of  the  ramifications 
of  our  Government.  Publications  dealing  with 
the  principles  of  our  Government,  its  organiza- 
tion, administration,  and  methods  of  conducting 
its  affairs  should  be  studied— not  academically, 
but  with  a  view  of  gaining  a  practical  grasp  of 
the  field.  The  independence  and  interdependence 
of  the  three  great  branches— legislative,  executive, 
and  judicial,- — the  extent  of  each  branch,  its 
organization,  its  duties,  division  of  work,  relation 
to  the  country  at  large,  and  the  particular  kind 
of  work  performed.  Such  general  information 
can  be  gained  before  entering  the  public  service. 
After  having  secured  a  grasp  on  the  situation, 
the  most  important  thing  to  consider  is  that  of 
adopting  congenial  work. 

Congenial     Work. — Success    in    Government 


Government  Service  as  a  Career    231 

work  cannot  be  anticipated  if  one's  duties  pn 
disagreeable  any  more  than  it  can  in  | 
life.  While  an  applicant  may  pass  an  examination 
with  a  remarkably  high  rating,  it  is  manifestly 
impossible  for  appointing  officers  to  judge  his 
special  ability  for  work.  It  sometimes  hap] 
that  a  brilliantly  educated  person  displays  \\<  mder- 
ful  lack  of  application  when  it  comes  to  actual 
work.  This  may  be  due  to  his  own  laziness,  or 
it  may  be  due  to  the  nature  of  the  work  assigned 
him  upon  appointment,  which  may  be  wholly 
distasteful.  For  example,  a  young  active  nan 
who  has  been  used  to  confidential  relations  with 
his  employers  would  not  be  satisfied  with  the 
position  of  files  clerk  where  his  duties  consist  of 
filing  correspondence  or  indexing  letter-b  oks 
day  after  day.  Such  a  change  would  be  ex- 
tremely disagreeable  and  disappointing,  not  to 
say  discouraging.  It  is  such  a  change,  coming 
at  a  time  of  life  when  ambition  is  at  its  height, 
that  wrecks  the  career  of  men  and  causes  them 
to  become  morose,  despondent,  and  despairing, 
gradually  giving  up  one  hope  after  another  until 
they  have  degenerated  into  the  type  of  clerk 
sneered  at  by  the  newspapers. 

One   must  like  his   work   if  he   would   exped 
success.     While  occasional  unpleasant  duties  are 
bound  to  arise  in  any  occupation,  it  is  importai 
in  adopting  public  service  as  a  career,  to  select 
some  branch  where  the  work  is  the  most  inter 
ing  and  the  best  suited  to  individual  taste.     The 


232     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

young  man  whose  likes  run  to  engineering  should 
get  into  one  of  the  engineering  corps  under  the 
civil  service,  the  one  with  a  taste  for  business 
should  enter  the  administrative  offices,  the  lawyer 
should  seek  appointment  where  his  duties  will 
be  of  a  legal  nature,  the  skilled  mechanic  should 
take  up  duties  for  which  he  is  best  suited,  and 
so  on  down  the  list  of  specialties.  It  is  necessary 
to  call  attention  to  this,  for  there  are  many  now 
in  the  Federal  service  who  occupy  places  the 
duties  of  which  are  distasteful  and  entirely 
unsuited  for  the  sole  reason  that  the  monetary 
inducements  appear  better. 

It  is  a  mistake  for  a  person  desiring  to  make 
Government  service  his  life-work  to  accept 
uncongenial  work  for  the  purpose  of  securing 
a  larger  salary.  The  practice  puts  him  at  odds 
with  the  service;  he  soon  comes  to  look  at  his 
work  through  the  eyes  of  the  tradesman  and 
deprecates  all  effort  that  cannot  be  counted  in 
dollars  and  cents.  This  does  not  mean  that  one 
should  not  seek  to  improve  his  financial  status; 
but  his  efforts  to  reach  the  highest  salaried 
positions  should  be  confined  to  his  chosen  field 
and  he  should  never  engage  in  a  struggle  for 
salary  to  the  detriment  of  his  life-work.  When 
a  man  commercializes  his  post  it  is  time  for  him 
to  resign  and  take  up  business  pursuits. 

Having  selected  a  line  of  work  that  promises 
to  be  interesting  and  congenial,  every  effort 
should  be  made  to  excel  and  to  write  a  name  in 


Government  Service  as  a  (  area 

good  results.     The  work  chosen   should    I 
future.     To  work  to  no  purpose  is  to  !><< 
machine.     When  there   is   a    prospect    of   ri 
a    powerful    incentive    to   good    work    is    always 
present.     Sometimes  a  line  of  work  may  ap] 
to  the  unobserving  to  have  no  future,   wl 
the  man  of  keen  perceptions  may  sec  wonderful 
possibilities   for  development.     The   fact    that   a 
branch  of  the  Federal  service  is  small  is  no  indica- 
tion   of    a    barren    future;     the    Department 
Agriculture  is  a  conspicuous  example  of  expansii  m. 
An  enthusiastic  and  thoroughly  prepared  worker 
may   sometimes    develop   results   that   take    I 
country  by  storm. 

Need    of    Patriotic    Service. --The  emolu- 
ments   of    many    posts    under  the    civil  sen 
are  insufficient  to  prove  attractive  to  tl  rity 

of  those  best  equipped  to  fill  them.  This  is 
particularly  true  of  the  higher  administrative 
and  scientific  positions.  The  Government  at 
present  needs  men  of  broad  ideas  and  liberal 
education  possessed  of  a  private  income  suf- 
ficiently large  to  enable  them  to  live  independently 
of  their  salary,  who  are  willing  to  devote  their 
time  to  the  development  of  Government  work. 
There  are  some  men  of  this  kind  now  in  I 
Federal  service,  but  their  number  is  too  small. 
Sons  of  rich  men,  seeking  careers,  have  spl 
chances  for  developing  great  usefulness  in  official 
life. 

There  is  a  large  number  of  well-to-d<  i  Americans 


234     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

who  hold  aloof  from  politics  and  governmental 
office  owing  to  a  reluctance  in  taking  time  from 
their  private  pursuits.  This  number  includes 
financiers,  lawyers,  men  of  extensive  landed  and 
commercial  interests,  scientists,  and  economists. 
Many  of  these  are  men  of  unfeigned  public  spirit, 
but  private  practicability.  The  lack  of  men 
of  this  type  in  public  office  is  due  perhaps  to 
the  conditions  of  present  American  life;  we  are 
over-energetic  and  over-anxious  to  accumulate 
property.  There  is  every  reason,  however,  to 
believe  that  the  future  will  see  more  rich  men 
in  our  Federal  offices. 

Individualism. — The  civil  service  offers  little 
to  the  employe  in  the  way  of  individualism. 
There  is  so  much  interdependence  that  the  in- 
dividual is  largely  lost — much  more  so  than  in 
commercial  occupations.  The  individual  sphere 
of  influence  is  usually  confined  within  narrow 
limits.  In  some  offices  there  is  practically  no 
opportunity  to  show  what  a  man  can  do;  his 
duties  are  laid  out  for  him  to  the  minutest  detail 
and  he  is  expected  to  carry  them  out  to  the 
letter;  he  can  exercise  no  discretion,  and  he 
is  the  merest  cog  in  the  wheel. 

Lack  of  individualism  is  a  distinct  drawback 
in  many  of  the  large  offices,  as  it  tends  to  smother 
ambition,  especially  the  ambition  that  demands 
hurried  realization.  The  details  of  the  work 
laid  out  in  those  large  offices,  however,  must  be 
performed   with   unfailing  accuracy.     It   can   be 


Government  Service  as  a  Career 

well  understood  that  where  then 
clerks  engaged  upon  one  kind  of  work  it   is  im- 
possible  for   the   administrative   head    to 
out  any  one  of  them  as  being  more  profi 
than    the    others;     he    must    depend    upon    the 
efficiency    record    as  kept    by    the  foremen    and 
section  chiefs,   a  system  that   is   not   conducive 
to  individualism. 

There  is  considerable  opportunity  to  del 
strate   personal   capacity   in   the   smaller   < 
as  in  such  offices  the  executive  head  is  broughl 
into  closer  touch  with  his    subordinates,  a 
dition    favorable    for    observing   individuals    and 
their  work. 

On  the  whole,  there  is  more  individualism  in 
scientific  work  than  elsewhere.  The  nature  of 
scientific  investigation  calls  for  personal  capacity 
and  the  attention  of  superiors,  and  the  public 
is  drawn  to  the  man  who  does  the  work  in  a 
much  more  direct  manner  than  is  the  case  in 
clerical  or  mechanical  positions. 

The  lower  the  grade  of  work  performed  the 
less  individualism  exists,  and  vice  versa.  The 
senior  clerkships,  chiefships,  foremanships,  and 
similar  grades  offer  some  opportunities  for  in- 
dividual exploitation.  Specialists  ha\ 
chances  to  build  up  personal  reputation.  [s 
fact,  so  secure  a  place  does  the  specialist  occupy 
in  the  Government  that  attention  is  din 
to  his  work  in  much  greater  measure  than  to 
that  of  the  average  man. 


236     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

Progressiveness.— Young  men  adopting  Gov- 
ernment service  as  a  career  should  keep  up  with 
the  day's  thought.  It  matters  not  whether  the 
nation's  thoughts  directly  concern  the  public 
work  or  not,  the  bright  man  will  keep  himself 
informed  on  what  the  country  is  doing.  He  will 
take  a  real  live  interest  in  the  economic,  industrial, 
and  political  conditions  of  this  country;  its  people, 
their  trials  and  hopes,  their  struggles  and  their  suc- 
cesses, will  appeal  to  him;  advances  in  invention, 
education,  and  commerce  will  receive  a  share  of 
his  attention.  He  must  keep  in  touch  with  prog- 
ress, else  he  will  become  a  clod  and  lose  ambition; 
and  the  moment  ambition  is  lost,  his  career  is 
gone.  There  can  be  no  career  without  a  dogged, 
persistent  purpose  to  make  every  day  his  own. 

The  Government  is  the  mill  in  which  history 
is  made.  Events  are  transpiring  that  concern, 
not  our  country  only,  but  the  world.  It  is  a 
privilege  to  be  placed  where  a  good  view  can  be 
had  of  the  nation's  progress.  The  successful 
office-holder  will  take  a  special  interest  in  the 
deliberations  of  the  Congress,  the  expansion  of 
our  territory,  the  education  of  our  island  peoples, 
the  unification  of  national  thought,  and  our 
growth  in  the  great  family  of  nations.  He  will 
be  a  subscriber  to  half  a  dozen  of  the  leading 
magazines  devoted  to  as  many  different  phases  of 
national  and  world  thought,  and  will  have  a 
library  of  standard  literature  supplemented  by 
works  bearing  upon  his  special ty. 


Government  Service  as  a  Career 

The  aspirant  for  a  career  under  the  <  ><■ 
will  not  only  take  a  live  interest  in  th< 
the  country  at  large,  but  he  will  look  w<  U 
work   and   policies   of   his   department   and    tin- 
particular  office  in  which  he  is  occupied.     I 
of  the  most  important  things  for  him  to  la 
and  one  of  the  first  to  learn  is  Government : 
and  procedure.     Examples  are  not  wanting  wh 
officials    well    up    show   a    remarkable,    not    to 
say  amazing,  ignorance  of  the  simplest  form 
procedure.     This    cannot   lead    to    success,     'i 
man  who  expects  to  evolve  a  successful  car 
under  the  civil  service  must  know    what  he   is 
about  and  must  act  intelligently,  not  blindly  and 
machinelike.     The  machine-acting  employe*  is  a 
pitiable  creature;  he  invites  criticism  and  causl 
remarks. 

As  in  the  case  of  business,  a  hobby  should  1  >e 
adopted   by   every   office-holder;   no   one    has 
better  chance  to  ride  a  hobby  than  he,  for  he  I 
the  time  to  devote  to  it.     A  good  hobby  acts  . 
lubricant  and  serves  to  keep  the  individual  bright. 
There  are   scores   of   harmless   hobbies,   such 
various  forms  of  collecting,  branches  of  sport,  the 
pursuit  of  educational  subjects,  authorship,  mv 
art,    travel,    and    philanthropy.     Anything    that 
will    contribute    toward   keeping   one's    thought 
clear  and  the  spirit  young  is  of  value. 

Resting  on  the  oars  has  blighted   and  da- 
more  careers  in  the  Government  service ■■' 
other  one  cause.     Incompetency  m; 


238    Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

ignorance  overcome,  and  judgment  improved  by 
earnest  attention;  but  laziness  is  a  weight  that 
drags  down  progress  with  fatal  certainty.  The 
world  has  no  use  for  the  tired  man;  the  business 
man  hates  him,  society  shuns  him,  and  his  fellows 
regard  him  with  scorn.  The  lazy  man,  the  one 
who  secures  a  position  under  the  Government  to 
escape  work,  not  many  years  ago  brought  obloquy 
upon  the  "Government  clerk"  by  boasting  of 
his  "snap."  It  is  no  longer  fashionable  to  be 
idle  in  Government  offices,  thanks  to  strenuous 
executive  officers;  it  is  hoped  that  this  vigorous 
policy  will  continue  till  all  the  drones  are  driven 
out  of  the  departments.  The  influence  of  lazy 
employes  is  evil  in  the  extreme,  and  all  men  who 
hope  to  enjoy  an  honorable  and  successful  career 
in  the  United  States  civil  service  are  cautioned 
to  avoid  this  class  of  persons. 

Loyalty. — "Be  loyal"  is  a  piece  of  advice 
worth  following.  A  goodly  number  of  public 
employes  entertain  an  unreasonable  dislike  for 
superiors  to  the  same  extent  that  prevails  in 
private  employment.  A  certain  class  of  persons 
feel  it  their  duty  to  deride  all  effort  on  the  part 
of  those  in  authority.  Why  they  do  this  is  a 
question  in  psychology.  A  spirit  of  discontent 
and  disloyalty  certainly  cannot  produce  good 
results. 

Public  criticism  of  superiors  is  not  tolerated 
and  is  a  cause  for  summary  dismissal.  This  is 
the  nearest  approach  to  Vese-majestem  this  country. 


Government  Service  as  a  Career 

Honest  discussion  of  men  and  methods  is  • 
so  long  as  the  discussion  does  not  smack  i 
loyalty.     There  is  no  doubt  that  caustic  criti< 
of  Government  officials  is  sometimes  well  meril 
but  it  ill  becomes  the   civil-service   employe"   to 
indulge  in  this  practice  notwithstanding  his  ; 
sonal    feelings.     He    should    constantly   bear    in 
mind  that  he  is  working  for  the  United   £ 
and  not  for  an  individual;  also,  that  he  himself 
is  quite  as  likely  to  make  mistakes  as  his  su 

The  successful   and   progressive   employe"   will 
make  it  a  point  to  please  his  executive  superior. 
He  may  not  like  his  chief's  way  and  that  way 
may  not  be  the  best  one;  but  somebody  musl 
in  charge  and  be  responsible  for  things.     Author- 
ity must  proceed  from  a  recognized  head,  and  it 
is   the  duty  of  subordinates  to  obey  cheerfully 
and  without  complaint,  either  openly  or  sullenly, 
all  official  orders.     Nothing  can  be  accomplished 
by  cross-purpose  efforts;  such  practice    weakens 
everybody  concerned.     The  wishes  of  a  superior 
should  be  studied  and  carried  out  with  intelligence. 
Personal  likes  or  dislikes  must  not  enter  into  the 
question  of  loyalty  if  a  successful  career  be  looked 
forward  to  in  the  civil  service.     Only  on  the] 
occasions  is  it  wise  to  oppose  superiors  and  th( 
only  when  specific  delinquencies  harmful  to  t 
public  interests   can  be  sustained  against  hin 
When  such  rare  occasions  do  arise,  eh; 
be  preferred  and  the  fight  conducted  with 

Closely  allied  with  loyalty  is  that  of  team  work. 


240     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

Not  infrequently  the  Federal  employe  seeks  to 
build  up  his  career  by  unfair  methods.  An  ex- 
ample in  point  is  that  of  declining  to  assist  associ- 
ates in  ways  that  will  accrue  to  their  benefit  when 
no  direct  advantage  is  gained  by  himself.  Almost 
every  corps  contains  one  or  more  men  of  this  type, 
men  who  are  able  and  willing  to  go  to  any  in- 
convenience if  their  effort  will  produce  some  good 
for  self,  but  who  sedulously  avoid  helping  an 
associate.  A  good  politician  knows  the  value 
of  a  strong  "machine"  and  no  one  can  build  a 
machine  without  team  work.  Team  work  pro- 
duces results  and  results  count.  While  it  is  not 
necessary  to  be  over-officious,  it  is  good  politics 
to  help  where  help  is  needed  and  welcomed;  it 
is  the  building  of  influence,  it  creates  friends,  and 
it  makes  for  public  and  personal  success. 

Appreciation. — "You  can  catch  more  flies 
with  molasses  than  with  vinegar,"  which  is 
merely  saying  that  everybody  likes  to  be  com- 
mended. When  a  man  has  made  a  mistake  it  is 
not  necessary  to  scold  him  and,  in  most  cases, 
not  even  to  remind  him  of  it.  A  kind  word  has 
put  many  a  man  on  his  feet.  A  word  of  praise 
for  work  well  done  is  like  the  grasp  of  an  honest 
hand — it  carries  life  and  makes  the  recipient 
anxious  to  please.  The  employe  struggling 
through  his  routine  leaves  his  desk  with  a  lighter 
heart  when  his  chief  comes  to  him  with  a  "Well 
done,"  or  "That  's  fine."  The  succeeding  days 
will  see  light  and  hope  in  that  man's  every  act, 


Government  Service  as  a  Career 

and  his  work  will  show  the  fruit  of  tin-  gi  x  •' 
Nothing  will  help  an  official,  bearing   a   1   . 
of  responsibility,  to  better  advantage  than  a  few 
words  from  an  appreciative  citizen  who  has  no 
axe   to   grind.     The  citizen  can  do  a  gre 
of  direct  good  by  writing  an  occasional  letter   to 
the  official  commending  his  efforts  and  wishing 
him  godspeed.     There  is  not  an   office-holder  in 
our  land  who  does  not  value  honest  words  of 
encouragement — not  flattery,   but  heartfelt  and 
heart-spoken  good  wishes.     It  is  all  right  to  speak 
well  of  a  man  after  he  is  dead;  it  is  far  more  to 
the  point  to  tell  him  while  he  is  yet  alive. 

Another  good  thing  to  remember  and  relig- 
iously practise  is  gratitude.  Never  forget  a 
favor  or  a  courtesy;  seek  to  repay  it  in  double 
measure.  There  is  no  better  investment  for  the 
professional  office-holder  than  courtesy  and  cheer- 
ful, not  servile,  performance  of  duty.  The  dis- 
gruntled man  rarely  rises  high,  for  officials  di 
want  an  associate  of  this  type. 

Every  branch  of  the  service  has  its  flotsam 
jetsam.     The    employe    who    would    make    his 
career  under  the  Government  a  success  will  care- 
fully avoid  the  hulks  and  driftwood  and  will 
as  associates,  both  in  and  out  of  office,  successful 
and  progressive  persons.     This  little  point  about 
associates  is  not  thoroughly  understood.     It  is  a 
fact  that  the  man  struggling  along  will   ! 
influenced  by  association  with  successful  men  and 
will  become  so  infected  with  the  spirit  • 


242     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

that  failure  will  be  next  to  impossible.  Success, 
like  laughter,  is  contagious. 

Silence  about  official  transactions  is  also  en- 
joined upon  the  ambitious  public  servant.  Often 
work  is  planned,  investigations  outlined,  or  de- 
cisions rendered  in  the  Federal  office  that  mean  a 
great  deal  to  the  country  and  the  effect  of  pre- 
mature announcement  would  be  disastrous.  The 
responsibilities  of  giving  information  to  the 
newspapers  or  otherwise  divulging  official  acts 
rightly  rests  with  the  men  at  the  head  of  the 
service,  not  with  subordinates.  "Leaks"  create 
confusion  and  often  scandal,  both  of  which  are 
detrimental  to  any  branch  of  the  service.  The 
public  interests  are  sometimes  best  conserved  by 
close  secrecy.  The  employe  who  cannot  keep 
a  secret  is  not  a  fit  person  to  entrust  with  Federal 
affairs.  Betrayal  of  trust  is,  in  most  cases,  un- 
intentional, due  to  indiscretion;  but  the  effect  is 
quite  the  same.  Unauthorized  and  garbled  ac- 
counts of  Federal  proceedings  are  worse  than 
disobedience;  they  express  disloyalty  to  the 
Government.  A  wagging  tongue  sends  its  owner 
into  private  life. 

On  Becoming  Known. — "Idle  money  doesn't 
grow,"  nor  do  idle  brains.  It  is  easier  under 
the  Government  to  become  stale  than  perhaps 
in  any  other  career.  The  Federal  servant,  whether 
occupying  a  high  or  a  low  position,  must  hold  up 
his  end;  otherwise  he  fails.  Hermits,  misers, 
and  eccentrics  may  keep  themselves  in  seclusion 


Government  Service  as  a  Career 


in  private  life,   but  the  public-  official    I 
known  to  the  public  and  the  public  empl 
be  known  to  the  official.     The  nature  of  public- 
work  demands  this,  and  practically   all   <  • 
tunities    for    advancement    in    the    eivi! 
depend  upon  it.     Those  adopting  Feden 
as  a  career  should  recognize  the  conditio! 
profit  accordingly. 

How  shall  a  man  become  known?    Tali  I 
worthless  unless  people  know  about  them.    Self- 
advertising,  to  put  it  bluntly,  is  the  key.     The 
practice  of  advertising  one's  self  is  in  no  manner 
objectionable,  provided  it  be  done  in  1< 
channels.     The  world  is  not  apt  to  think  better 
of  a  man  than  he  thinks  of  himself.      Self-adver- 
tisement, however,  must  be  carried  on  with  <  I 
and  discretion,  and  the  man  using  it  must   be 
ready  at  all  times  to  make  good  his  claims.     (  I 
wise  he  becomes  boastful,  conceited,  and  empty- 
pated  and  his  constituency  will  lose  confidei 
him  and  set  him  down  as  unworthy  of   trust. 
People  are  ever  ready  to  help  the  man  whi 
prove  his  mettle. 

The  Government  employe  or  official  who  v. 
rise  in  the  civil  service  must  possess  considerable 
affability.     He   must   have   the   trails   of 
bility  and  all  the  niceties  that  make   up 
society   without   carrying   them   to   an    extreme. 
The  higher  Government  positions  invariably 
the  qualifications  of   sociability.     One   wl 
make   himself    agreeable   with   his    fell 


244     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

during  official  hours  and  outside  makes  friends, 
and  if  there  be  one  thing  that  helps  advertise  a 
man  it  is  his  friends — but  not  the  friends  who 
always  want  something.  The  professional  office- 
holder should  be  a  member  of  one  or  two 
good  clubs;  the  acquaintances  made  there  and 
the  prestige  that  club  membership  affords  are 
worth  much  more  than  the  annual  dues.  His 
face  becomes  familiar  to  influential  men  who 
otherwise  might  never  hear  of  him.  This  prin- 
ciple of  club  life  is  well  recognized  in  the  com- 
mercial world  and  the  sooner  it  is  recognized  by  the 
ambitious  young  man  desiring  to  make  Govern- 
ment service  his  career,  the  sooner  will  he  get  a 
wide  acquaintance  of  men  that  will  be  worth 
a  great  deal  to  him.  He  needs  not  only  to  make 
friends,  but  to  place  a  proper  value  on  his  friends 
and  never  impose  upon  any  one  or  take  a  mean 
advantage. 

Beginning  Low. — Our  civil-service  system 
provides  no  plan  of  uniform  promotions  and  there 
is  no  regulation  requiring  appointees  to  enter  at 
the  minimum  salaries  and  work  up  through  the 
various  grades  to  the  higher  places.  It  is  pretty 
well  recognized  by  observant  persons,  both  in  and 
out  of  the  public  service,  that  such  a  system  would 
be  distinctly  advantageous,  and  to  this  end  many 
offices  encourage  appointees  to  enter  at  minimum 
salaries.  Inasmuch  as  this  plan  does  not  obtain 
everywhere,  it  is  not  necessary  for  appointees  to 
enter  at  the  lowest  pay  of  a  grade  in  the  hope  of 


Government  Service  as  a  Career 

gradually  rising.     Indeed,  for  the  man  equi 
with  a  specialty  it  is  advisable  to  get  a    Lai 
entering  salary  as  possible,  as  the  law  specifically 
estops  him  from  securing  a  transfer  to  another 

department  until  he  shall  have  served  thi 

in  the  department  from  which  he  seeks  transfer. 

The    civil-service    systems    of    some  first-class 
Powers  provide  places  for  understudies,  who  shall 
ultimately  fill  the  higher  positions.     Our  s  . 
provides  no  scheme  of  this  kind.     Persons  en1 
our  civil  service  must  be  well  prepared  to 
the   examinations,    and   after   securing   appoint- 
ment they  must  keep  their  eyes  and  ears  open  for 
opportunities  to  rise.     That  the  future  will  bring 
changes  in  the  methods  of  handling  promotions 
there   is   little   doubt.        It   is   possible    that    an 
educational  course  for  understudies  may  develop 
wTith  time. 

The  low-placed  man's  hope  for  rising  lies  prin- 
cipally in  bringing  himself   to   the  attention   of 
the  higher  officials.     It  is  not  enough  that  he  enter 
low  and  devote  himself  closely  to  business, 
a  course  will  carry  one  to  a  certain  point  by  the 
rule  of  seniorage,  which  is  well  recognized  in  the 
departments,  particularly    in    regard    1 1 
places;  but  it  is  very  improbable  that  his  will 
be  a  great  success.     He  must  prove  his  worth  to 
persons  who  are  in  position  to  command   hi 
vices.    This  principle  is  the  same  in  the  Govern- 
ment as  in  commercial  and  professional  life. 

Precedent. — Precedent  is  a  god   in   Govern- 


246     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

ment.  Let  no  one  forget  that.  The  iconoclast 
is  decidedly  out  of  place  in  every  branch  of  the 
Government,  whether  civil  or  military.  Few 
new  appointees  realize  this,  but  a  short  time  in 
the  departments  serves  to  impress  upon  them 
the  fact  that  the  Government  has  ways  of  doing 
things  that  must  take  precedence  over  their  own. 
If  it  were  not  for  precedent  our  Government 
would  be  a  mass  of  confusion;  every  official  and 
employe  would  have  his  own  way  of  fulfilling  his 
duties,  with  the  result  that  nothing  would  be  done. 
Lawyers  readily  understand  and  appreciate  the 
value  of  precedent,  and  as  the  higher  executive 
posts  are  quite  generally  filled  by  lawyers  pre- 
cedent is  a  fixture.  Every  act  must  have  its 
authority. 

Freshmen,  particularly  from  commercial  offices, 
are  sometimes  inclined  to  ignore  technicalities, 
which  they  term  "red  tape"  and  treat  as  of  little 
consequence,  substituting  the  short-cut  methods 
of  the  business  office.  Persistence  in  this  course 
usually  ends  in  loss  of  position.  Technicalities 
are  the  safety  appliances  of  our  ponderous  Govern- 
ment machine,  and  ignoring  them  often  results 
in  great  loss  and  confusion.  The  safest  way  for 
the  beginner  is  to  observe  all  technicalities,  no 
matter  how  seemingly  trivial. 

Scarcely  less  of  a  god  is  that  of  rank,  which, 
however,  is  not  as  rigid  and  unyielding  under 
the  civil  service  as  in  the  military  arm.  Rank 
is  a  recognized  condition  throughout  the  Govern- 


Government  Service  as  a  Career 

ments  of  the  world,  no  matter  how 
small.     The   State   Department   ranks   all   other 
departments;   the   Army   ranks   the    Navy;    the 
assistant  secretary  of   a  department    ranks   the 
head  of  a  bureau  though  the  latter  recen 
financial   compensation;  the  chief  of   a   <l:  . 
ranks  the  expert  under  his  direction  though  the 
expert  receive  double  the  chief's  pay;  tin    i 
ranks  the  messenger,   the  messenger    ranks    the 
laborer.     Good    order    demands    that    members 
of  a  rank  give  way  to  members  of  a  higher  j 
and  that  subordinates  give  precedence  to 
superiors.     The  act  of  showing  preference  for  i 
bers  of  a  higher  rank  creates  a  good  impre 
A  close  observance  of  rank  in  a  respectful  in. 
redounds  to  the  benefit  of  the  ambitious  <  i 
holder;  it  marks  him  as  versed  in  the  practice 
that  makes  for  good  government. 

While  the  careful  employe  will  closely  follow 
prescribed  methods,  in   doing  so   he  will    guard 
against  becoming  a  brainless  automaton, 
cedents  are  the  things  upon  which  law  and  i 
rest  and  their  proper  observance  is  ma  ml. 
but  with  changing  conditions  new  precedenl 
come  necessary  and   it  is   here   that  originality 
is   brought  into   play.       In   certain   branch 
Federal  work  it  is  a  serious  st<  tablish  a 

precedent,    for   there   is    always   the    possibility 
that  advantage  will  be  taken  of  it  by   the  un- 
scrupulous or  unthinking.     Conservatism  is 
fore  necessary. 


248     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

Military  and  naval  ideas  of  rank  and  discipline 
are  often  extremely  distasteful  to  civilian  employes 
who,  lacking  the  training,  rarely  grasp  the  spirit  of 
military  discipline.  Instances  are  not  lacking, 
on  the  other  hand,  where  military  and  naval 
officers  entertain  a  contemptuous  regard  for 
civilian  employes  and  do  not  hesitate  to  show  it. 
It  is  almost  unnecessary  to  say  that  such  condi- 
tions are  exceptional  and  individual  and  are  not 
countenanced  by  the  service.  Notwithstanding, 
they  create  jealousies  and  ill  feeling,  and  are  a 
factor  to  be  taken  into  account  when  adopting 
Government  service  as  a  career. 

Thrift  among  Federal  Employes.— There  is 
less  thrift  among  Government  employes  than 
perhaps  among  any  other  class  of  citizens  with 
corresponding  incomes.  Very  few  department 
employes  own  a  home  and  few  save  anything 
from  their  salaries  no  matter  how  large  or  how 
small.  A  great  deal  of  complaint  is  heard  from 
Federal  employes  on  account  of  an  inability  to 
accumulate  a  competence.  Debt  is  common; 
not  the  debt  of  a  business  man,  but  that  of  hand- 
to-mouth  living.  A  Government  employe"  in 
receipt  of  $1200  a  year  has  nothing  at  the  end 
of  the  year;  it  is  the  same  with  those  receiving 
$2000  or  S3000,  or  even  more.  It  is  not  a 
question  of  the  size  of  the  salary ;  the  result  is  the 
same.  While  employes  here  and  there  will  be 
found  who  save  something  from  their  pay  they 
are  the  exceptions  and,  compared  with  the  total 


Government  Service  as  a  Career   a 


number  of  office-holders,  form  a  small  mini 

Spending  is  a  habit  with  the  public  i 
In   the   city  of   Washington,   where   over    25,0c 
Government  employes  reside,  loan  sharks 
thriving  business.     So  greedy  and  annoying 
these  collateral  vultures  grown  that  it  ha 
necessary  to  adopt  stern  measures  against  them. 
Complaints  from  creditors  have  been  so  nun.' 
that  department  officials  have  found  it  neo 
to  issue  circulars  stating  that  the  Government  is 
not  in  the  collecting  business.     In  actual  pr 
no  official  cognizance  is  taken  of  employes'  debt-, 
except  when  it  is  evident  that  some  dishoi 
exists;  in  that  event  the  delinquency  is  regarded 
as    conduct    unbecoming    a    gentleman    and    the 
employe  is  treated  accordingly — sometimes  merely 
warned,    sometimes    dropped    from   the    Fi 
payroll. 

Several    causes    operate    to   bring   ab 
maintain  habits  of  thriftlessness  among  Go\ 
ment  employes.     The  prospect  of  a  life  position, 
for  one  thing,  tends  to  make  incumbents  careless 
in    money    matters.     The    temptation    to    Spend 
against  the  assurance  of  a  steady  incomi 
irresistible  to  many  and  the  result  is  disa 
to  savings  accounts.     Another  important  1 
is  that  persons  adopting  Federal  work  as 
career  are  not  primarily  of  commercial  bent. 

Owing  to  thriftless  habits  of  office-holders,  tin- 
question  of   providing   pensions   or   insur. 
now  being  seriously  agitated,  and  there 


250    Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

doubt  that  the  Congress  will  be  asked  to  enact 
some  kind  of  legislation  looking  to  the  relief  of 
indigent  employes  now  burdening  some  offices. 
Thousands  of  office-holders  have  spent  over 
twenty-five  years  in  public  work,  during  which 
time  they  have  received  a  steady  income,  on  the 
whole  averaging  higher  than  is  given  for  similar 
service  in  commercial  life.  A  goodly  propor- 
tion of  these  aged  incumbents  have  not  saved 
a  cent  during  those  years  of  steady  income  and 
they  find  themselves,  at  the  end  of  their  life's 
work,  no  farther  advanced  financially  than  when 
they  began.  It  must  not  be  understood  that 
these  employes  have  led  lives  of.  intemperance 
and  squandered  their  income  in  drink  or  at  the 
gaming  table.  It  is  quite  the  reverse.  They 
are,  as  a  rule,  strictly  sober,  gentlemanly,  and 
respected ;  their  poverty  is  a  result  of  environment. 
In  no  class  of  occupation  are  the  possibilities 
for  saving  better  than  in  Government  service. 
Every  office-holder  can  and  should  live  modestly 
within  his  income.  He  can  buy  a  home  and  sys- 
tematically save  money.  The  opportunities  for 
investing  savings  are  not  the  same  as  those  com- 
ing to  the  commercial  worker,  yet  the  chances 
for  placing  money  where  it  will  grow  are  ample. 
The  increasing  value  of  land  in  this  country  offers 
an  inviting  field  for  savings;  sound  stocks  and 
bonds  netting  four  to  six  per  cent,  are  always  to 
be  bought;  new  industries  are  springing  up,  calling 
for   subscriptions    to    the    capital    stock;    savings 


Government  Service  as  a  Career 

banks  all  over  the  country  pay  from  thr< 
per  cent,  on  deposits;  home-buying  is  alwa 
good  investment. 

The  young  man  adopting  public  servi 
career  should  make  it  an  inflexible  rule  to  lay  by 
not  less  than  twenty-five  per  cent,  of  his  salary 
every  payday.     This  should  be  fastened  upon  him- 
self on  receipt  of  the  first  month's  salary  and  s ! 
never  be  broken.     It  is  easy  to  le1  one  month  go 
by  in  the  hope  of  saving  a  double  amount  the 
next  month;  the  next  month  sees  an  unexpi 
demand  for  money  and  the  double  amount  is  n<  >t 
put  aside.      The  only  way  to  save  money  is  to 
make  the  rule  absolute,  even  to  the  extent  of 
great  inconvenience;  in  other  words,  systei 
saving.     This  cannot  be  impressed  too  sti 
upon  young  appointees.     Systematic  saving  in- 
duces principles  of  thrift  which  are  felt  in  every- 
thing that  a  man  does.     The  saving  man  remains 
young  and  vigorous,  not  only  in  his  private  life 
but  in  his  public  career.     His  whole  life 
systematic  and  he  is  kept  away  from  the  pitfalls 
of  ease  and  luxury  that  are  so  disastrous. 

Commercialism   is   not   to   be   commended    to 
office-holders;    men    so   inclined   should    ;^>   into 
business  and  not  take  up  public  service. 
failure  to  save  is  to  be  condemned.     Academic 
advice  on  saving  money  is,  in  a  degree,  u 
but  it  sometimes  spurs  young  manhood  to  < 
and  results  in  good. 

Health    of    Office-holders. —Judging    from 


252     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

the  number  of  old  persons  in  the  departments 
one  might  suppose  that  the  health  of  the  public 
employe  is  unusually  good  and  that  this  class  of 
the  world's  workers  live  to  greater  ages  than  those 
in  other  pursuits.  Statistics  on  this  point  are 
lacking;  but  observation  would  seem  to  indicate 
that  the  health  of  public  employes  does  not  differ 
much  if  any  from  that  of  others  in  similar  grades 
of  work.  Perhaps  on  the  whole  it  is  somewhat 
better,  owing  to  the  amount  of  leisure  gained  by 
reason  of  short  hours  and  long  vacations.  Moder- 
ation is  general  in  the  life  of  the  office-holder, 
and  moderation  is  well  known  to  be  conducive  to 
health  and  long  life.  If  this  count  for  much, 
the  Government  employe  is  especially  favored. 
Yet  statistics  are  unavailable,  and  this  is  a  matter 
of  conjecture. 

Planning  a  Career.  —  The  young  man  taking 
up  Federal  service  as  a  career  should  plan  for  years 
ahead.  He  should  fix  upon  some  goal  and  bend 
all  his  energies  to  attain  that  object.  The  tempta- 
tion to  go  out  of  one's  course  for  something  better 
is  a  peculiarly  strong  one  in  the  service  of  the 
United  States.  Positions  and  conditions  in  some 
other  office  or  branch  of  the  service  may  appear 
so  much  better  that  it  is  next  to  impossible  for 
the  young  official  to  withstand  an  attempt  to 
lay  hold  upon  something  else.  Fixity  of  purpose 
should  be  a  rigid  rule  of  the  man  aspiring  to  a 
successful  public  career.  Ambition  should  be 
anchored  to  a  certain  high  post,  and  the  attain- 


Government  Service  as  a  Card  r 

ment  of  that  one  place  will  form  the  basis  of  an 
honorable  career  in  the  nation's  service. 

Assuming  that  a  young  man  twenty  years  old, 
with  a  high-school  education  and  two 
mercial  experience,  aims  for  the  chief  clerkship 
of  a  department:     His  first  step  is  to  secure 
clerical    position    by    competitive    examinati< 
Immediately  upon  entering  the  civil  service  he 
will  matriculate  at  one  of  the  colleges  in  Wash- 
ington, selecting  a  career  that  will   lead   to 
degree  of  A.  B.     Upon  the  completion  of  his  colli 
course  at  the  end  of  four  years  he  will  begin  a 
three-year  course  inlaw.     He  will  thus  spend  seven 
years  in  educating  himself.     While  serving  thi 
seven  years  he  should  have  received  proi 
bringing  him  up   to  an  annual  salary  of  $1600. 
Upon  completing  his  law  course  he  is  ready  to 
battle  for  the  object  of  his  ambition— the  depart- 
ment chief  clerkship. 

Self-advertisement  is  now  indicated.     His  edu- 
cational attainments  will  entitle  him  to  mem': 
ship  in  a  good  club,  where  he  should  make  his 
influence  felt  in  a  quiet  conserval  y,  and 

where  he  should  make  friends.     He  will  be  on  the 
constant  lookout  for  opportunities,  always  kee]  ting 
abreast  of  progress.     By  making  a   «  ' 
of  department  methods  and  practice  he  will  n 
himself  known  in  his  bureau  and  his  ; 
be   sought  by   the   higher  officials.     He   will 
careful  to  associate  himself  as  closely  as  ] 
with   the   department   officials,   :r  rem< 


254     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

assignments  even  at  higher  pay  and  positions 
involving  merely  routine  duties.  Upon  the  occur- 
rence of  a  vacancy  in  the  position  which  he  covets 
he  will  go  to  the  proper  officials  and  lay  his  case 
before  them,  a  course  that  is  frequently  unneces- 
sary for  one  who  has  proven  his  mettle. 

If  a  man's  ambition  lie  among  the  higher  offices 
outside  of  the  so-called  civil  service,  a  political 
career  is  indicated.  If  a  scientific  career  be 
chosen,  specialism  in  his  favorite  profession  sup- 
plemented by  published  work  will  bring  him 
honors. 

Fixity  of  purpose,  in  all  cases,  is  the  one  stern 
rule  to  be  followed. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

GOVERNMENT  SERVICE  AS  A  STEPPING-STONE 

THE  ambitious  man  makes  his  employmei 
stepping-stone    to     success.     The     avi 
young  man  is  ambitious  and  in  beating  aboul 
an  opening  he  will  utilize  individuals  and  establish- 
ments as  rungs  to  his  ladder;  his  employer's  in- 
terests will  be  cast  aside  when  he   sees  better 
opportunities.     It  is  not  pertinent  to  discuss  the 
ethics   of   this   practice.     Utility   is   everywh 
recognized;  it  is  acknowledged  by  individuals,  the 
business  and  professional  world,  and  the  Govern- 
ment.    Moreover,  the  utilitarian  is  pointed  out 
as  one  who  builds. 

It  is  the  part  of  an  ambitious  man  to  give  his 
best  efforts  to  everything  he  undertakes,  the  result 
being  that  he  makes  himself  valuable  wherever 
his  activities  lie.     The  business  man  would  rather 
surround   himself   with   a   handful   of   ambitious 
workers  than  twice  the  number  of  half-: 
ones,  even  if  he  know  that  he  can  retain   the 
services  but  a  short  time.     The  commercial  mi 
welcomes  ever  so  short  a  contrad   with  the 
bitious  man  of  capability,  well  knowing  tha 
will  be  used  as  a  stepping-sume  but  that  his 


256     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

ness  will  be  benefited  by  conscientious  and  in- 
telligent attention.  No  business  deteriorates  by 
employing  successful  m.n. 

The  same  principle  applies  to  Government  ser- 
vice. While  our  merit  system  offers  special  in- 
ducements in  the  way  of  liberal  hours  and  secure 
tenure  of  office,  it  in  no  way  compromises  a  man's 
career  or  enters  into  a  contract  to  defeat  his 
hopes  by  withholding  from  him  a  short  period  of 
public  service.  On  the  contrary,  the  value  of 
new  blood  is  well  recognized  throughout  the 
Federal  establishment. 

The  young  man  seeking  Government  service 
with  the  avowed  purpose  of  using  it  as  a  stepping- 
stone  in  his  life  career  need  have  no  hesitancy  in 
carrying  out  his  policy.  It  is  to  be  remembered 
that  ours  is  a  Government  of,  by,  and  for  the 
people.  It  was  not  intended  by  the  founders  of 
these  United  States  that  our  Government  should 
settle  into  the  hands  of  any  favored  class  to  the 
exclusion  of  others,  and  it  is  particularly  contrary 
to  the  principles  of  good  government  to  exclude 
the  ambitious  man  from  even  a  brief  participa- 
tion in  the  actual  work  of  administering  public 
affairs.  This  point  is  raised  for  the  reason  that 
one  sometimes  hears  individual  objection  to  the 
practice  of  young  men  accepting  appointment 
for  short  periods  during  which  they  hope  to 
equip  themselves  with  a  university  education  or 
until  outside  interests  absorb  them  by  better 
inducements. 


Civil  Service  as  a  Stepping-Stone 

In  the  words  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Na 


the  0]    ■  \ 
\ 

) 


Many  of  the  young  men  furnished   by 
ation  of  the  civil-service  law  are  too  compe 
ambitious  to  remain  permanently  in  the  Govt  rami  i 
service,  in  which  the  prospect  of  advancement  prac- 
tically disappears  after  the  attainment  oi 
which   a   capable   young   American    is    unwilling    to 
consider  enough  for  him  to  expect  for  the  1 
of  his  life.     As  a  consequence  of  this, 
are   continually   tendered   by   the   most   useful   and 
competent   clerks     .     .     .     because   they    have   op- 
portunities for  more  desirable  employment 

There  are  many  hundreds  of  young  men  in  the 
United  States  civil  service  whose  purpose  is  to 
hold  their  positions  but  a  few  years,  then  enter 
private  life,  having  worked  out  their  ends.     &  >me 
of  these  want  a  college  education,  some  seek 
litical  honors,  others  look  to  the  wide  held  <  »f  1  >usi- 
ness,   still  others  wish  to  enter  the  profi 
These  young  men  represent  new  blood,  fresh  vij 
renewed    activity,    original    ideas,    strong    ho] 
and  high  ambitions.     Their  influence  is  good  and 
wholesome.     They    come    and    go    among    then 
official  associates,  infecting  them  with  the  cl 
vigor  of  their  energy.     Free  from  the  chain- 
habit,  their  influence  is  to  lift   others  from  the 
toils  of  routine  and  point  the  wa\ 
vice.     Every  year  sees  an  influx  of  thi 
men  and  a  corresponding  outpouring  into  privafc 

'Report  of  Secretary  of  the  Navy,    Miscellaneou 
1905,  p.  8. 


258     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

life.  They  are  welcomed  by  the  administrative 
heads,  who  know  that  the  Government  benefits 
by  their  short  service. 

The  young  men  themselves  are  double  gainers. 
Not  only  do  they  work  out  their  purpose,  but 
while  doing  so  they  gain  a  knowledge  of  Govern- 
ment at  first  hand  that  will  always  be  valuable. 
Entering  private  life  they  carry  with  them  a  re- 
membrance of  the  problems  of  administration, 
and  their  acquaintance  therewith  will  always 
prove  an  incentive  to  keep  a  true  interest  in 
things  pertaining  to  the  Commonwealth.  Asso- 
ciation, even  for  a  year  or  two,  with  the  Govern- 
ment results  in  better  citizenship. 

The  Government  is  looked  upon  as  a  training 
school  by  a  large  percentage  of  private  estab- 
lishments, who  draw  upon  it  for  assistants. 
Many  young  men  are  quick  to  recognize  this  and 
enter  the  Federal  service  for  the  purpose  of  ob- 
taining good  training  and  the  prestige  that  Govern- 
ment service  confers.  They  pay  close  attention 
to  business,  develop  their  specialties,  make  a 
name,  and  accept  one  of  the  many  offers  that 
private  interests  are  continually  making  to 
Federal    assistants. 

As  a  training  school  the  Government  presents 
two  distinct  phases:  To  certain  classes  of  young 
men  seeking  careers  in  private  life  the  Federal 
establishment  offers  unexcelled  opportunities  for 
acquiring  thorough  training  and  experience ;  of  the 
rest,  who  constitute  perhaps  95  per  cent,  of  the 


Civil  Service  as  a  Stepping-Stone 

whole  number,  the  Government  demands  th  i 
training  instead  of  offering  it.     It  is  then  fore  im- 
portant that  a  man  looking  to  the  ( lovernmi 
a  stepping-stone  in  his  career  should  familiari 
himself  with  conditions  before  deciding  upon  his 
course.     In  looking  over  the  ground   he  should 
avoid  the  possibility  of  using  his  i  d 
gain  without  rendering  value  received  ;  conditi 
are  not  favorable  for  that  thing  at  present  and 
they  are  growing  more  unfavorable  year  by  year. 

The    greater    number    of    positions    in    which 
training  is  received  are  of  scientific  nature     A 
young  man  may  begin  in  some  bureaus,  notably 
the  Department  of  Agriculture,  at  the  n<  tminal 
salary  of  $40  or  $50  a  month,  and  receive  training 
that  will  fit  him  for  the  superintendency  of  scien- 
tific departments  in  agricultural  or  manufacturing 
establishments.     These  places  are  under  the  civil 
service  and  can  be  secured  only  through  rigid 
amination,  usually  in  subjects  that  only  a  coll 
graduate  can  pass.     They  are  the  positions  sch 
uled   as   "scientific  assistant"   or   "aid"   in   the 
civil-service  manual. 

It  is  occasionally  possible  for  the  aspiring  5 
man  to  secure  appointment  in  a  scientific  I 
at  a  very  nominal  salary,   say  Si. 00    a    month 
merely  to  comply  with  the  statutes,  and 
excellent  training  in  special  lines  of  v. 
mentary  to   his   college   course.     It    usually 
quires   personal   or   political   influence    to   Bee 
an  appointment  of  this  kind,  as  the  ; 


260     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

extremely  limited  and  good  reasons  must  be 
presented   for   requesting   such   an  assignment. 

A  good  plan  for  one  adopting  Government  ser- 
vice as  a  means  to  an  end  is  to  outline  a  course 
of  procedure  and  then  adhere  strictly  to  the 
original  purpose.  Thus,  one  accepting  the  posi- 
tion of  scientific  assistant  at  a  small  salary  in  the 
hope  of  gaining  experience  for  private  enterprise 
must  not  be  swayed  by  the  temptations  of  higher 
salary  in  other  Federal  bureaus  or  in  private  life 
where  the  duties  required  would  carry  him  out  of 
his  chosen  field  of  work.  Again,  the  temptation 
to  remain  too  long  in  a  position  must  be  guarded 
against. 

There  is  no  better  opportunity  in  this  country 
for  the  young  man  depending  upon  his  own  re- 
sources to  secure  a  thorough  education  than  is 
offered  Government  employes  stationed  at  Wash- 
ington. A  large  number  of  excellent  educational 
institutions  are  located  at  the  capital,  among 
them  several  of  the  country's  big  universities 
numbering  thousands  of  students.  The  doors  of 
practically  all  these  institutions  are  open  to  the 
department  worker,  having  lecture  hours  especially 
arranged  to  accommodate  him.  Owing  to  short 
official  hours  and  ample  provision  for  vacation, 
the  department  employe  may  secure  a  complete 
university  education  and  occupy  a  public  office 
at  the  same  time.  By  judiciously  distributing 
his  vacation  he  may  spend  four  or  five  years  in 
college,  equip  himself  with  a  profession,  and  find 


Civil  Service  as  a  Stepping-Stone 

himself  the  possessor  of  a  snug  bank 
the  end  of  that  time,  a  condition  thai  is  i 
possible    for   the   young   man   working   his   wi 
through  college  elsewhere. 

Usually  the  self-dependent  student  finds  him- 
self in  debt  at  the  end  of  his  college  coun  e.  I  Con- 
ditions in  Washington  are  the  reverse.  Tins,  a 
young  man  desiring  to  take  up  law  as  his  life 
career  may  secure  a  clerkship  in  the  de]  tits 

at  Washington,  attend  one  of  the  law  schi 
there,  and  when  he  receives  his  degree  at  the-  end 
of  three   years   he   should   have   enough    □ 
saved  from  his  salary  to  carry  him  through  a  year 
or  two  of  the  starving  period.     The  same  thing  is 
true  of  physicians,  dentists,  professors  in  edu 
tional  institutions,  and  a  wide  variety  of  technical 
occupations. 

It   is  not   generally  known  that   such   0] 
tunities  lie  within  reach  of  the  aspiring,  but  p 
young  man.     There  are  thousands  of  ambit: 
young  men  who  are  compelled  to  secure  an  edu- 
cation   as    best   they    can    and    find    them 
laboring  under  the  most  adverse'  financial  condi- 
tions just  at  the  time  when  they  i 
to  be  burdened  with  such  troubles.     The   I 
hours  and  often  total  lack  of  vacation  in  com- 
mercial life  are  not  conduce  curing  a  a  ill 
education   by   the    hampered    young    man.     1 
opportunities  for  getting  a  university   ■ 
while  serving  in  the  departments  at  Washin 
are  becoming  more  widely  known,  with  a  result 


262     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

that  a  greater  number  are  taking  advantage  of 
the  conditions.  This  is  one  of  the  reasons  that 
the  demand  for  Washington  assignments  is  so 
strong. 

Young  Government  employes  assigned  to  large 
cities  away  from  Washington  seldom  have  chances 
to  take  courses  at  a  college.  The  institutions  in 
other  cities  do  not  face  the  conditions  that  pre- 
vail at  the  capital.  The  large  colleges  and  uni- 
versities will  not  cater  to  the  few  students  seeking 
the  privilege  of  other  than  the  regular  lecture 
hours,  and  such  institutions  as  do  offer  courses 
are  compelled  to  carry  on  their  work  at  night 
to  accommodate  commercial  employes  whose 
working  hours  extend  far  beyond  those  of  the 
office-holder. 

A  favorite  plan  of  those  adopting  Government 
service  for  the  purpose  of  securing  an  education, 
is  to  select  a  profession,  go  through  college,  and 
enter  upon  the  practice  of  their  profession  after 
official  hours.  A  young  graduate  in  medicine, 
for  instance,  will  secure  his  degree,  pass  "the  State 
Board,"  hang  out  his  sign  and  practise  outside  of 
department  hours,  getting  experience  and  saving 
money  prior  to  devoting  his  whole  time  to  medi- 
cine. This  is  called  "sun-downing"  in  Washing- 
ton, where  the  practice  is  common. 

The  young  politician  sometimes  comes  to 
Washington  or  takes  a  position  in  a  Federal  office 
at  large  to  get  a  good  idea  of  government  at  first 
hand.     The  young  man  entering  politics  usually 


Civil  Service  as  a  Stepping-Stone 

conceives  that  the  first  duty  of  a  politician 
secure  election  to  office,  forgetting  that  the 

tive   Federal   offices,  like   municipal   off] 
stitute  scarcely  one  sixth  of  one  per  c<  nt.  of  the 
total   number.     Few   think   of    iirst    securing    a 
Federal  appointment  as  a  stepping-ston< 
chosen  career.     It  will  pay  any  aspiring  young 
politician  to  secure  a  place  in  one  of  the  depart- 
ments at  Washington  and  hold  it  three  or 
years  prior  to  taking  an  active  part  in  li 
tics.     By  keeping  his  eyes  and  ears  open   and 
adopting    an    inquisitive    manner    he    can 
more  of  practical  government  in  three  years 
in  Washington  than  he  could  hope  to  learn   in 
half   a    lifetime    elsewhere.     What    is    more,    he 
will    begin    his    political    career  aright,    for  he 
will  not  have  a  chance  to  become  imbued  with 
the  corrupt  ideas  of  his   local   "boss";  he   will 
learn  to  think  for  himself  instead  of  having  s<  ime 
one  else  think  for  him. 

The    logical    place    to    study    Government    is 
Government  headquarters,   not  in   some   n 
city  hall.     This  is  well  recognized  by  the  O  n 
A  new  Congressman  is  invariably  subjected  to  a 
thorough  course  of  training  by  the  1 !  r  the 

Senate  before  he  is  permitted  to  occupy  much  i  if 
the  legislators'  time.     The  first  term  in 
gress  is  usually  spent  in  learning,  the  Sp 
assigning  the  new  member  to  places  on   unim- 
portant committees  and  transferrin-  him  to  more 
desirable  ones  as  he  learns  the  methods  of  law- 


264     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

making.  Finally,  after  the  member  has  proved 
his  capability  he  is  assigned  to  important  posts 
on  committees  and  becomes  a  real  influence  in  the 
nation's  great  body  of  law-makers.  The  success- 
ful Congressman  must  not  only  be  familiar  with 
Congressional  methods,  but  he  must  be  conversant 
with  the  ramifications  of  the  executive  depart- 
ments ;  only  by  such  knowledge  will  he  be  able  to 
comprehend  the  needs  of  any  arm  of  the  Govern- 
ment. Such  knowledge  is  best  obtained  by  actual 
preliminary  service  in  various  bureaus,  and  a 
study  of  methods  on  the  ground.  There  are  to- 
day men  in  the  Congress  who  began  their  careers 
as  department  clerks,  using  their  positions  as 
stepping-stones  to  political  honors. 

Other  far-seeing  young  men  have  begun  their 
careers  in  the  departments  at  Washington  as 
subordinates  and  fitted  themselves  for  high  posts. 
A  number  of  officers  now  very  high  in  the  Govern- 
ment started  in  extremely  modest  positions  in  the 
Washington  departments,  then  resigned  for  po- 
litical service,  only  to  return  as  influential  officials. 
These  careers  are  only  beginning  to  become  known 
to  the  public  and  are  highly  beneficial  to  young 
manhood.  Emulation  is  an  inherent  virtue  and, 
judging  from  the  present,  a  few  years  hence  will 
see  the  culmination  of  many  more  similar  careers. 

When  it  comes  to  using  Government  service  as 
a  stepping-stone  to  business  careers  there  is  a 
different  story  to  tell.  In  the  first  place,  the 
Government   is   slow  to   adopt   new  commercial 


Civil  Service  as  a  Stepping-Stone 

ideas  and  methods;  tried  systems  are  | 
In    the    second    place,    the    business   cond 

by  the   Government  is    a    kind    dii 
that  followed  by  commercial  houses.     Cor] 
methods  are  given  study  by  the  *  '<■  ivernmenl 
only   from  a   legal   aspect.     There   is,   generally 
speaking,  but  one  branch  of  business  for  which 
the  Government  provides  ample  training  and  that 
is  finance.     Even  this  branch  is  confinei  1  1 
limits.     A  relatively  few  places  under  the  Treasury 
Department  offer  opportunities  for  training  in  the 
broad,  fundamental  principles  of  finance.     Young 
men  who  associate  themselves  closely  with  the 
higher    Treasury    officials    quite    generally    are 
offered  responsible  positions  with  financial  estab- 
lishments in  various  parts  of  the  count  ry.     ( )utsi<  le 
of  these  few,  whose  opportunities  are  somewhat 
dependent  upon  luck  and  personal  favoritism,  the 
chances  for  business  training  are  nil. 

Taken  as  a  wide  proposition,  Government 
vice  unfits  one  for  business  life.     A  young  I 
just  out  of  school,  entering  the  Federal  servi< 
remaining  there   ten   years,    is  entirely  un: 
business  life  and  would  be  a  total  stranger  in  the 
modern  commercial  office.     He  lacks  the  soul  of 
business.     His  official  duties  prevent  him  ki 
up  with  business  progress,  and  he  does 
the  snap  and  energy  developed  in  the  clash  ol 
commercialism.      The   young  man   intending 
take  up  business  as  a  career  should   not 
more   than   three   years   in   Governmcir 


266    Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

otherwise  he  will  certainly  find  himself  stranded 
in  the  business  office. 

As  a  stepping-stone  to  science  some  chances 
are  offered  in  the  scientific  bureaus.  This  is 
particularly  true  of  the  so-called  practical  sciences 
as  differentiated  from  the  natural  sciences.  So 
long  as  the  scientist  does  not  attempt  to  com- 
mercialize his  profession  he  will  find  the  chances 
for  training  in  the  Federal  establishments  suitable 
for  a  modest  career.  The  demand  for  Govern- 
ment scientists  to  take  salaried  places  in  agri- 
cultural and  commercial  life  is  considerable, 
particularly  for  the  specialized  expert.  Certain 
branches  of  Federal  scientific  work  are  conducive 
to  narrowly  limited  specialism,  a  training  that 
is  seldom  to  be  gained  in  private  life.  Private 
establishments  are  not  inclined  to  offer  long  courses 
of  training,  only  to  find  their  assistants  leaving 
them  at  the  completion  of  their  education.  The 
logical  course  is  to  look  for  men  who  already  have 
the  training.  The  researches  and  investigations 
conducted  by  the  Government  not  infrequently 
bring  fine  offers  to  persons  having  them  in  charge. 

There  is  little  doubt  that  the  field  of  agriculture 
offers  the  best  inducements  for  training  at  public 
expense.  The  work  of  this  great  department  has 
been  fostered  to  a  liberal  degree,  with  the  result 
that  our  agricultural  interests  have  received  pro- 
nounced benefits.  A  college  graduate  may  enter 
the  department  at  a  nominal  salary  and  be  de- 
veloped into  an  expert  in  any  chosen  branch  of 


Civil  Service  as  a  Stepping-Stone 

agriculture.     It  is  primarily    tl>  I    this 

department  to  promote  the  farming  in1 
the  country.     There  is  no  objection,   then 
to  training  men  for  this  field  of  usefulness  and 
letting  them  take  service  in  any    private   estab- 
lishment where  their  knowledge  will  benefit  agri- 
cultural interests. 

A  few  branches  of  engineering  also  offer 
chances  to  train  for  outside  careers.     These  | 
are  confined  principally  to  the  scientific  cor] 
the  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey,  the  GeoL 
Survey,  the  General  Land  Office,  and  tl. 
Office.      The  latter  bureau  seems  to  pr< 
pecially  favorable  conditions  for  mechanical   i  •. 
perts   having  a  knowledge  of   law    to  train   for 
positions  and   partnerships  with  firms  of  patent 
attorneys. 

Public  service  appears  to  offer  desirabl 
tunities  for  persons  aspiring  to  a  literary  career, 
as  it  affords  a  sure  and  ready  means  of  keeping 
the  pot   boiling  while  passing  through  the  long 
starving    period    incident   to   the    profession    of 
letters.     Life  at  Washington  is  particularly  f 
able  to  the  literary  worker.      Many  well-known 
and  popular  authors  have  homes  there-  ami 
of  them  retain  a  connection  with  the  G<  »ven 
The  clubs  and  societies  suitable-  for  author 
artists  are  such  as  to  furnish  a  proper  en 
ment,  and  the  cosmopolitan  character  -  >f  Washing- 
ton's   population    furnishes    the    elem<  I  I 
study  of  people  not  obtainable  elsewhere-  in  tbif 


268      Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

country,  bringing  together  the  national  life  of 
all  peoples  of  the  world.  Considerable  newspaper 
and  magazine  work  issues  from  the  pens  of  Gov- 
ernment employes  and  officials;  the  training  of 
the  Federal  office  is  conducive  to  accuracy  of  state- 
ment if  not  freedom  of  style.  Struggling  literary 
workers  might  do  well  to  turn  to  the  civil  service 
until  they  are  able  to  stand  alone. 

The  following  outline  of  a  plan  for  adopting  the 
civil  service  as  a  stepping-stone  may  be  applied 
in  principle  to  any  career: 

Assuming  that  a  high-school  graduate  eighteen 
years  old,  dependent  upon  his  own  resources,  is 
ambitious  of  becoming  a  physician;  he  should 
spend  his  nineteenth  year  studying  stenography 
and  typewriting.  As  soon  as  this  art  is  mastered, 
he  will  take  the  civil-service  examination  in 
stenography  and  typewriting,  specifying  $900  a 
year  as  his  minimum  entrance  salary.  Upon 
passing  he  is  reasonably  sure  of  appointment,  for, 
in  the  words  of  the  Civil  Service  Commission, 
"the  demand  for  male  stenographers  is  scarcely 
equal  to  the  supply."  At  twenty  years  of  age  he 
takes  service  with  the  Government  at  Washington 
and  matriculates  at  one  of  the  medical  colleges 
there.  The  next  four  years  will  be  spent  in  the 
double  occupation  of  serving  the  Government 
and  studying  medicine,  the  student  distributing 
his  thirty  days'  leave  of  absence  to  fit  his  studies. 
Upon  graduation  he  should  be  in  receipt  of  not 
less  than  $1200  a  year,  promotions  coming  more 


Civil  Service  as  a  Stepping-Stoni 

surely  and  rapidly  to  stenographers  than  t 
other  grade  of  civil-service  employe's.     He  will  at 
once  qualify  for  practising  medicine  In  the  District 

of  Columbia  and  hang  out  his  sign.     I  [e  will  hold 
his  position  for  another  two  or  three  years,  pi 
up  such  patients  as  come  his  way  aft  c 
hours,  and  save  his  money.     He  will  imv, 
twenty-seven  years  old ;  he  should  be  free  f r<  »m 
debt  and  have  at  least  $1500  to  his  credit  at  the 
bank.     He  is  now  ready  to  resign  his  position  and 
go  anywhere  he  chooses  to  enter  upon  his  life 
work,  prepared  to  face  the  obstacles  of  a  si 
income  for  several  years.     At  thirty  years  oi 
he  should  have  built  up  a  paying  practice. 

This  general  plan  may  be  suited  to  any  c 
except  a  merely  commercial  one,  and  all  parties 
are   gainers.     The   Government   benefits   by   the 
ambitious   example   set   for   other    empl< >>.' 
well  as  by  the  attention  given  to  official  busi] 
the  young  man  benefits  by  a  practical  acquaint- 
ance with  the  great  Federal  machine  in  addition 
to  the  career  he  has  chosen. 

The  only  thing  that  might  prove  objectionable 
to  adopting  Government  service  as  a 
stone  is  the  possibility  of  neglecting  official  duties 
by  giving  too  much  attention  to  outside  into  1 
either  through  physical  or  mental  exhaust  i 
lack  of  genuine  interest  in  the  public  work. 
a  contingency  must  be  strictly  and  uneqi 
avoided,  for  it  is  unfair  to  the  Government 
smacks  of  unethical  practice   in   the   indivi 


270     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

Owing  to  lack  of  attention  to  duty  on  the  part  of 
students,  or  others  in  the  civil  service  having  out- 
side interests,  executive  officers  have  sometimes 
found  it  necessary  to  discourage  "side  lines."  It 
is  quite  generally  recognized,  however,  that  so 
long  as  an  employe  performs  the  duties  of  his 
office  and  conducts  himself  as  a  gentleman  he  is 
at  liberty  to  follow  his  own  bent  outside  of  official 
hours. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

FAULTS  AND  ETIIU  S 

FEW  persons  there  are  who  like  to  be  told  their 
faults.     Some  forgotten  sage  once  said  that 
"a  true  friend  tells  you  your  faults."     Just  how 
far  this  is  true  is  open  to  question.     A  sure  way 
to  make  one's  friend  his  enemy  is  to  pr; 
his  faults ;  he  will  not  be  slow  to  express  hi 
approval  by  cutting  friendship.      The  only 
way  to  proceed  in  fault-finding  is  1  Fy  no 

one,  but  put  it  impersonally  by  saying,  "The  fault 
with  a  great  many  people   is,"  <  >nly   the 

brazenly  guilty  can  feel  hurt  at  this.     Then  I 
with  this  preliminary  apology,  no  one  need  lit  the 
following  well  meant  suggestions  to  himself  if  he 
be  not  so  inclined. 

Faults  of  Employes.— To  begin  at  t; 
ning  is  to  take  up  the  new  appointee.     A  maj 
of  "freshmen"  coming  to  the  Government 
quite  like  their  prototypes  i:  and  th 

through  a  similar  course  of  training  down. 
conceit  is  a  predominant  chara 
often  coupled  with  sublime  ignoranc  vern- 

ment  methods. 

271 


272     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

Probably  the  worst  type  of  freshman  comes 
from  commercial  offices,  where  his  training  has 
been  limited  to  short-cuts  in  producing  money 
profits.  Employes  of  this  type  are  usually  in- 
accurate in  small  things  and  show  a  disposition  to 
ignore  technicalities,  setting  down  such  practices 
as  "red  tape."  It  is  for  the  freshmen  that  the 
six  months'  period  of  probation  was  designed  and 
it  takes  just  about  that  length  of  time  for  them 
to  find  their  level. 

There  is  a  tendency  on  the  part  of  some  em- 
ployes to  belittle  Government  ways  and  methods. 
This  is  especially  true  with  a  certain  class  of 
subordinates,  met  in  every  large  office.  Their 
specialty  is  sneering;  their  inferiors  are  "poor 
devils,"  their  superiors  "fools."  Their  nature  is  a 
suspicious  one  that  views  everything  and  every- 
body with  misgivings.  Rarely  efficient  them- 
selves, they  are  surprised  that  anything  can  be 
accomplished  under  the  present  regime;  the  suc- 
cess of  any  person  or  project  is  a  source  of  keen 
disappointment  and  promptly  elicits  a  prediction 
that  the  ultimate  result  will  be  disastrous.  For- 
tunately employes  of  this  kind  are  few  in  number, 
as  their  influence  upon  fellow  servants  is  baneful. 
A  new  or  inexperienced  appointee  thrown  into 
close  relations  with  a  man  of  this  type  is  sure  to 
become  imbued  with  cynical  ideas  that  may  take 
years  to  eradicate.  Men  of  long  public  service 
are  not  affected,  but  the  freshman,  alert  to  the 
new  life,  is  peculiarly  susceptible.     It  is  advisable 


Faults  and  Ethii 

for  the  young  man  entering  Go 

to  avoid  the  railing  member  of  his  i 

he  would  the  snapping  street  cur. 

Closely  related  to  the  scornful  em] 
complaining    one.     "All    spirited    anim 
over  the  traces  at  times,"  but  th< 
all  the  time.     Everybody  has  cause  for  com] 
at  times  and  no  one  objects  to  hear  a  wi  < 
test  occasionally ;  but  eternal  complaint  is  ir". 
and  accomplishes  nothing.     The  complainant  is 
never  satisfied  with  anything;  he  does  not 
demn  things  wholesale,  but  everybody  and  every- 
thing  falls  a  little   short.     Often  his   id 
high,  sometimes  he  is  affected;  his  disposition  is 
changeable  in  everything  but  that  of  complaint. 
Government  methods  of  doing  business  receive 
much  of  his  critical  attention  and  he  ]  m 
bore   by   harping   upon   life's   shortcominj 
thoroughly   accomplished    complaining    employe* 
often  does  real  good  by  setting  a  ridiculous  example 
to  his  fellows  and  showing  them  what  a  nui 
one  can  be  if  he  try. 

Factional    differences    often    do    considerable 
harm.   The  jealousies  that  arise  in  Federal  I 
sometimes  smoulder  for  years  and  then  suddenly 
flare  out  with  such  fury  that  the  newspapers  take 
them  up  and  the  world  learns  of  them.     Mos 
the  scandal  originating  in  Government  burea 
could  be  avoided  if  the  participants  ha  I 
self-respect   to   bear   themselves    as   gentlemi 
That   good    cause    for   resentment    may 


274     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

unquestionable ;  but  when  this  resentment  takes 
the  form  of  "rings"  and  "cliques"  it  mocks  the 
service  and  deserves  to  be  suppressed  with  a 
stern  hand.  Our  newspapers  do  the  Government 
and  the  public  a  commendable  service  by  pub- 
lishing the  details  and  names  of  participants  in 
"rings"  and  "gangs."  Public  exposure  is  a 
powerful  factor  in  effecting  reform.  The  office- 
holder should  constantly  bear  in  mind  that  he  is 
working  for  the  United  States  and  not  for  an 
individual,  and  that  anything  that  interferes  with 
the  discharge  of  duty  is  hurtful  to  the  Govern- 
ment. Factional  quarrels  should  be  carefully 
guarded  against  and  spite  promptly  killed.  Be- 
ginners especially  should  let  stories  savoring  of 
jealousy  go  in  one  ear  and  out  the  other. 

There  is  little  change,  little  new  environment 
in  the  average  Government  office  especially  in 
positions  of  a  clerical  nature.  Routine  work  often 
results  in  employes  getting  into  ruts  and  de- 
generating into  machines.  A  goodly  proportion 
of  the  older  Government  clerks  are  to-day  stranded 
with  scarcely  a  hope  of  reaching  firm  footing. 
Clerical  work  as  performed  in  the  large  offices  is 
conducive  to  ambition-wrecking.  Often  the  work 
is  highly  specialized  without  the  advantage  of 
offering  the  clerk  any  discretion ;  he  is  compelled 
to  act  according  to  precedent  and  within  very 
narrow  limits,  giving  him  no  opportunity  to  dis- 
play his  real  ability. 

One  must  have  strong  will  power,  lasting  am- 


Faults  and  Ethics 

bition,  and  an  inquisitive   interesl    in 
called  to  devote  years  to  changeless  routii 
the  same  desk  with  promotions  few  and   far  be- 
tween, as  is  the  case  in  many  of  the  big 

Washington.     There  are  hundreds  of  men  in  the 
Washington  departments  whose   sole   inten 
the  Government  is  limited  to  their  pay  env< 
they  live  from  hand  to    mouth,  an 
their  personal  appearance,  slow  o  rid  slower 

of  thought,  care  nothing  for  the  country's  political 
conditions,  and  are  cheerless  to  a  despondent 
degree.  Many  of  these  clerks  were  once  of  strenu- 
ous ambition  and  might  have  developed  into  men 
of  conspicuous  value  to  the  Government  but  for 
unfortunately  becoming  victims  of  circumsl 
and  martyrs  to  their  positions.  While  most  of 
them  are  men  of  matured  years  some  are  still  in 
early  manhood. 

The  necessity  of  keeping  young  and  vigorous 
cannot  be  impressed  too  strongly  upon  ne\ 
pointees  and  prospective  candidates  for  Federal 
positions.     The  influence  of  routine   is   fatal   to 
some  persons;  such  should  avoid   it  and,  if  ap- 
pointed to  a  position  requiring  it,  secure  an 
assignment.     There  is  no  question  about  d< 
tending   to    contract   the    mental    horizon.     No 
matter  how  bright,  a  man  may  gel  into 
being  assigned  uninteresting  or  i 
As  soon  as  one  loses  interest  in  his  work  it  is  time 
for  him  to  inquire  into  the  cause  and  i 
accordingly;  let  him  look  at  himself  first,  tl 


276    Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

his  work,  and,  no  matter  where  the  cause  lies,  it 
is  his  duty  to  correct  it.  It  is  particularly  ad- 
visable for  the  young  man  to  consider  well  his 
career  and  always  keep  himself  in  physical  and 
mental  readiness  to  grasp  an  opportunity.  It 
will  be  remembered  that  the  man  of  alert  mental 
perceptions  and  vigorous  ambition  makes  the 
better  success  and  consequently  the  better  citizen. 

Widely  separated  from  the  man  in  the  rut  is  the 
one  who  carries  his  work  wherever  he  goes,  not 
the  actual  work  itself  but,  worse,  its  worries. 
It  is  bad  enough  that  the  commercialist  should 
grow  old  before  his  time  in  the  strife  of  accumu- 
lating wealth ;  it  is  worse  that  the  public  employe 
should  form  this  bad  habit.  The  annoyances 
and  worries  of  the  office  have  no  place  in  one's 
private  life  and  they  should  be  left  in  the  office 
desk.  The  mind  is  entitled  to  rest  and  recrea- 
tion to  a  greater  degree  than  the  body.  Rest 
assures  a  secure  and  more  logical  consideration 
of  business.  The  man  who  leaves  his  worries  at 
the  office  will  be  able  to  take  up  his  official  duties 
the  next  morning  with  a  clear  mind. 

A  fault  that  takes  firm  hold  of  some  employes 
is  that  of  promotion  agitation.  Young  men 
especially  are  likely  to  be  seized  with  a  desire 
for  rapid  promotions,  particularly  if  the  com- 
mercial instinct  is  strongly  developed.  The  ex- 
ecutive heads  of  bureaus  are  not  infrequently 
bombarded  with  applications  for  promotion,  even 
when  it  is  evident  that  there  is  no  vacancy.     It 


Faults  and  Ethii 

is  perhaps  enough  to  dismiss  comment  upon  tins 
fault  with  the  suggestion  that  when  one  finds  his 
commercial  instincts  taking  precedi  er  his 

official  duties  a  business  care  r  is  indicated. 

Owing  to  the  minute  details  that  offi<  e-hi 
are  called  upon  to  discharge,  the  fault  of  enlai 
upon  life's  trivialities  sometimes  develops. 
fault  is  noticeable  in  the   employees  private    life 
as  well  as  at  the  office.     The  habit  of  attai 
undue  importance  to  trivial  duties  may  show  itself 
to  unfavorable  advantage  in  affectations  of  S] 
or  manner.      Halting,  stilted  speech   and   e! 
attempts  at  over-exact  expression,   resulting    in 
ridiculous  exaggerations  of  manner,  are  not   un- 
common among  a  certain  class  of  Federal  empl 
A  common-sense  view  of  official  duties  a: 
effort  to  keep  informed  upon  world  i  will 

usually  serve  as  a  buffer  for  this  and  many 
faults. 

The  lazy  employe"  is  not  an   unknown    tl 
Notwithstanding  the  regime  of  energy  that  the 
past  few  years  have  witnessed,  there  is  still 
for  improvement  on  the  part  of  certain  em; 
who  display  too  much  deliberati 
business.     Under  the  spoiis  system  shiftli 
and  lack  of  energy  were  winked  a1  :  ire  no 

given    such    scant    recognition    under    the 
system  as  at  present  operated. 
ness  and  inattention  to  duty   is  n<>\\ 
reprimand,  and  justly  so. 

Speaking  disparagingly   of   friendly  nat 


278     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

discourteous  and  especially  to  be  condemned  in 
office-holders.  Unpleasant  altercations  often  arise 
in  the  family  of  nations  and  it  is  but  natural  that 
individuals  should  form  some  opinion  of  the 
merits  of  each  case  and  sympathize  with  one  side 
or  the  other.  Wars  or  quarrels  between  foreign 
nations  have  developed  such  strong  feeling  in  this 
country  that  it  has  become  necessary  for  the 
President  to  issue  stern  orders  to  all  office-holders, 
directing  them  to  express  no  opinion  either  in 
public  or  in  private  upon  such  questions.  It  is 
quite  as  unbecoming  for  Federal  servants  to  take 
sides  with  one  friendly  nation  against  another 
as  it  is  for  individuals  to  take  up  the  quarrels  of 
their  friends.  It  is  natural  that  citizens  of  our 
country  should  sympathize  with  the  presumably 
oppressed  in  an  international  quarrel ;  but  it  is  a 
breach  of  etiquette  for  public  employes  to  give 
expression  to  their  personal  sympathies,  an  ac- 
tion that  might  be  interpreted  as  hostility.  The 
late  misunderstanding  between  Japan  and  Russia, 
and  between  Great  Britain  and  the  South  African 
republics,  are  cases  in  point.  In  similar  cases  it 
is  the  duty  of  office-holders  to  give  no  expres- 
sion to  their  sympathies,  remembering  that  the 
quarrelling  nations  are  all  friendly  to  us  and  we  to 
them. 

Not  only  should  the  Federal  employe  avoid 
taking  sides  in  times  of  international  strife,  but 
he  should  not  speak  disparagingly  of  any  nation 
with  which  we  are  on  terms  of  friendship.     Be- 


Faults  and  Ethii 

littling  this  or  that  country  because  of  a  d 

in  government,  language,  or  customs  ill 

the   office-holder,  whatever   private   opinion   he 

may  hold.    It  should  be  the  aim  oi  i  n  rj  F< 

servant  to  promote  his  Government's   i 

with  other    nations  by  manifesting    a 

cordiality  and  friendliness  toward  them. 

Faults  of  Officials. — "The  king  can  d 
wrong"  is  a  blind  doctrine  in  our  time.     Kings 
have  faults  as  well  as  their  subjects,  and  so  have 
the  officers  of  our  Government.     The  shortc<  miings 
of  Government  employes  are  many,   particularly 
if  regarded  from  the  viewpoint  of  the  cynic ;  those 
of  the  executive  officers  may  be  less  in  number, 
but  those  they  have  are  more  conspicuous  owing 
to  the  prominence  of  their  positions.     The  public 
is  always  ready  to  criticise  the  officials,  wh 
compelled  to  look  well  to  their  steps  in  executing 
the   public  trusts  given   into  their   hands.     The 
failure  of  the  employ6  is  magnified    when 
in  the  official. 

One  of  the  meanest  faults,  when  exercised  by 
officials,    is    that    of    discrimination.     This    i 
take  a  number  of  directions;  it    may   I 
against  a  policy,  against  the  citizen,  the 
employe,   a  class  of  people,   creed,    i   lor, 
graphical  position,  a   foreign   p  ad    ; 

titude    of    interests   and    rights  attaching  I 
citizen.     On  the  other  hand,  the  <  fficial  may 
favor  in  the  same  way,  which  is  aln 
to    discrimination.     Prejudii  rally 


280     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

cause  of  discrimination;  sometimes  it  is  favor- 
itism due  to  personal  or  political  obligation. 

This  fault  is  invariably  baneful  and  ruinous  to 
discipline.  Its  appearance  in  an  administrative 
officer  sometimes  results  in  disruption  in  the 
office  and  nasty  scandal,  only  quenchable  by  the 
official's  removal  from  the  service.  The  basis 
of  the  merit  system  is  efficiency  and  fairness, 
and  the  officials  who  are  entrusted  with  the 
system's  administration  betray  the  Government 
and  ignobly  fail  in  their  public  duty  by  violating 
the  laws  against  discrimination.  It  is  not  meant 
by  this  that  officials  should  not  favor  efficient 
assistants  as  against  the  less  competent  ones,  a 
practice  that  is  conducive  to  the  best  service ;  dis- 
crimination against  persons  or  policies  that  plainly 
make  for  the  public  good  is  meant,  a  practice  that 
can  have  no  defence  from  whatever  point  it  is 
considered. 

Akin  to  discrimination  is  the  fault  of  non- 
appreciation.  This  fault  is  confined  largely  to 
the  Government  offices  and  is  best  seen  in  the  case 
of  subordinates  performing  work  for  which  ad- 
ministrative officers  take  credit.  Not  a  little 
work  is  performed  entirely  by  subordinates  who 
lay  the  completed  work  before  their  immediate 
superior,  who  in  turn  makes  a  report  to  his  chief 
and  fails  to  give  credit  where  credit  is  due.  The 
assistance  rendered  by  subordinates  is  often  ac- 
cepted to  the  full  without  a  word  of  encourage- 
ment from  the  executive  officer  under  whom  they 


Faults  and  Ethics 


work.  While  it  is  true  that  the  employe's  duty 
is  to  obey  orders,  the  official  ought  to  show  his 
appreciation  either  by  word  or  deed;  if  he  dots 
not,  he  violates  the  spirit  of  the  merit  system  in 
that  he  fails  to  encourage  efficiency.  Encounr 
ment  is  a  powerful  factor  in  promoting  efficiency. 
Fortunately,  this  is  the  usual  thing,  but  it  is  not 
universal  and  the  new  appointee  must  not  be  too 
much  surprised  to  find  that  he  does  the  work  and 
some  one  else  receives  the  credit.  The  proper 
step  in  cases  of  this  kind  is  for  the  employe"  to 
take  the  first  opportunity  to  get  away  from  that 
office. 

A  peculiar  fault  is  sometimes  seen  in  officials 
who  conceive  that  public  duty  demands  their 
issuing  many  orders  to  subordinates  and  sur- 
rounding themselves  with  intricate  systems  of 
procedure,  emphasizing  the  importance  of  triviali- 
ties. Executives  of  this  type  lack  the  broad- 
minded  grasp  of  life.  They  have  made  the 
mistake  of  accepting  appointment  to  a  post  too 
big  for  their  capacity.  An  office  administered  1  >y 
an  official  of  this  kind  becomes  restless ;  the  subor- 
dinates soon  come  to  view  the  radical  methods 
with  suspicion  and,  through  a  confusion  of  regu- 
lations and  minute  instructions  rapidly  promul- 
gated, commit  many  breaches  of  discipline  all  ol 
which  are  magnified  out  of  proportion  to  their 
importance.     The  result  is  trouble  and  reprimand . 

It  is  the  habit  of  exercising  minute  and  arbitrary 
oversight  of  all  details,  and  insisting  upon  the  | 


282     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

formance  of  every  duty  with  infinite  exactness, 
that  originally  developed  the  jeer  of  "red-tapism  " 
flung  at  the  Government's  business  methods.  It 
was  once  the  usual  thing  throughout  the  depart- 
ments, but  in  late  years  the  higher  executive 
officials  have  discouraged  the  practice.  It  is  still 
in  evidence,  however,  here  and  there. 

Personal  exploitation  at  the  Government's 
expense  seems  to  be  a  favorite  shortcoming.  This 
offence  against  civic  duty  is  not  carried  to  the 
degree  of  actual  dishonesty.  It  consists  of  un- 
ethical self-advertisement,  such  as  usurping  credit 
for  accomplishing  things  done  by  others,  the 
expounding  of  personal  theories  in  Government 
publications,  voluminous  authorship  in  which 
self  is  altogether  too  conspicuous,  and  other  prac- 
tices valuable  to  the  individual  but  from  which 
the  Government  derives  no  benefit.  The  average 
article  coming  from  the  pen  of  a  Government 
author  has  long  been  the  subject  of  merriment  in 
the  newspaper  columns;  and  it  must  be  said, 
however  bad  newspaper  English  usually  is,  that 
much  of  the  journalist's  comment  has  been  well 
founded.  Authorship  appears  to  be  a  choice 
method  of  personal  exploitation ;  spectacular  offi- 
cialism is  a  close  second.  It  is  right  that  one 
should  seek  to  advance  his  own  interests  and 
build  up  a  career ;  but  it  is  not  right  to  undertake 
this  without  giving  value  received.  It  is  wrong 
in  principle  and  a  career  founded  upon  it  cannot 
be  truly  successful. 


Faults  and  Ethics 

Faults  of  Citizens.   -The  chief  faull  of  the 

public  in  its  relation  to  the  G 
ness.    This  is  best  understood  by  the  polil 
who  depends  upon  a  constituency  for  his  su< 
So  changeable  is  the  public  that  one  cannot  pr 
a  month  ahead  what  its  mind  will  be  toward  a 
popular  official.     There  have   been   insti  i 
our  history  where  a  single  insignificant  act  in  a 
lionized  officer  has  reversed  adoration  into 
demnation.     Parties  have  been  swept  into  p 
only  to  meet  the  united  curses  of  the  wh<  >le  i 
try.     The  execution  of  policies,  the  enforcement 
of  laws,  the  enactment  of  necessary  legislation 
are  as  likely  to  meet  popular  disapproval  as  a  S]  lirit 
of  total  negation.     Again,  the  public  may  wink 
at  acts  in  the  official  that  are  in  plain  viol 
of  the  law  and  the  Constitution.     The  mosl 
cessful  politician  is  the  one  who  can  best  read  the 
signs  of  the  times  and  who  can  oftenest  for 
public  opinion. 

The  citizen  owes  a  duty  that  he  apparently 
does  not   recognize;  it   is  the   duty   ol    loyalty. 
What  our  Federal  officials  need  badly  to-day  is  the 
support  of  our  citizenship.     Then.-  is  entirely  t 
much  disparagement  of  the  official's  end 
to  disparage  a  man's  efforts  is  a  p<  m  >r  w. 
him.     Our  people  need  to  remember  that  officii 
and  public  employes  represent  the  Govemn 
not  themselves,  and  that  they 
cordingly.     It  matters  not  to  what  p.  -lit : 
an  official  adheres,  he  is  engaged  in  publi 


284     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

and  it  is  a  poor  show  of  citizenship  to  condemn 
his  efforts  at  performing  his  duty.  While  it  is 
true  that  occasionally  an  office-holder  is  found 
here  and  there  to  prostitute  his  office,  it  is  equally 
true  that  the  vast  majority  render  good  and  con- 
scientious service ;  it  is  out  of  place  to  launch 
wholesale  condemnation  because  of  the  short- 
comings of  one  or  two  individuals.  The  least 
that  the  citizen  can  do  is  to  lend  encouragement, 
and  that  ought  to  be  given  freely  in  the  country's 
interests. 

The  literature  upon  civil  service  in  this  country 
—national,  state,  and  municipal — seems  to  be  a 
unit  in  fault-finding.  Many  of  the  writers  have 
no  first-hand  knowledge  of  conditions,  no  actual 
experience  under  any  civil-service  system,  and 
depend  upon  theory  for  conclusions.  The  ten- 
dency is  to  set  ideals  altogether  too  high  and  to 
be  satisfied  with  nothing  short  of  those  theoretical 
planes  of  perfection.  Any  one  finding  flaws  in  our 
civil-service  system  feels  constrained  to  go  into 
print  with  a  criticism,  deprecating  conditions  and 
pointing  out  the  folly  of  this  or  that  feature  ;  some- 
times he  suggests  remedies,  oftener  he  is  content 
with  mere  fault-finding. 

Persons  wearing  smoked  glasses  naturally  see 
things  with  a  smoky  vision.  Before  directing  so 
much  criticism  against  our  civil-service  system 
it  would  be  well  for  writers  to  remember  that 
houses  are  not  built  by  knocking  off  the  shingles 
or   breaking  the   plaster ;  nor   is   a  convalescent 


Faults  and  Ethii  - 

helped  by  giving  him  a  dose  of  poison.     I 

finding  is  no  criterion  of  wisdom,  and  no 
gainsay  the  folly  of  entrusting  the  upbuildii 
a  system  of  Government  to  unwise  men.     It 
of  our  writers   would   spend    five   years  in 
national  civil   service,  instead  of  issuing  arl 
that  smell  of  book  dust  and  carry  the  marks  of 
an   overheated   imagination,    there    would    be 
different  story  to  tell.     Let  any  one  who  doubts 
the  efficiency  of  our  system  compare  condil 
under  it  with  the   conditions  of  public   service 
before  its  establishment ;  the  contrast  will 
an  eloquent  reply. 

Ethics. — The  principles  of  right  and  wronj 
pretty  much  the  same  wherever  they  an-  f 
but  conditions  sometimes   arise   that   mak- 
ask,  Is  this  proper?    The  world  is  growing  I 
and  our  conceptions  of  ethics  consequently 
come  more  refined.     What  was  right  a  gener 
ago    is    no     longer    considered    quite    the    thing. 
Reasoning  by  analogy,  the  next  generatioi 
haps  will  not  countenance  some  of  the  thin, 
now  practice.     Our  notions  of  right  and 
are  to  a  certain  extent  the  result  of  in 
and  training.     It  is  a  healthy  sign 
become  restless  and  to  demand  reform 
better  sign  for  them  to  inquire  into  the   i  1 1 
the  smaller  things  that  make  up  a  na1 

Civic  righteousness  is  char;.  "f  indi\ 

uprightness.     It  is  easy,   therefore,    I 
people  by  their  Government.     It  is  not  I 


286     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

to  specify  examples,  for  the  world  well  knows  too 
many  instances  of  governmental  turpitude  befit- 
ting the  individual  citizens.  In  times  long  gone 
by  it  was  necessary  for  small  nations  to  have  a 
guarantee  in  hand  when  taking  the  promise  of  a 
stronger  power.  In  our  day  a  great  nation's 
promise  is  unquestioned ;  there  is  no  need  for  the 
small  country  to  stand  in  awe  of  its  powerful 
neighbor  so  long  as  it  conducts  itself  uprightly 
and  justly.  America's  boasted  ambition  is  to 
lead  the  world  in  all  things  peaceful.  She  has 
already  made  magnificent  strides  in  every  direc- 
tion— commercial,  educational,  geographical,  and 
ethical. 

Taking  up  ethical  progress,  free  thought  per- 
haps occupies  as  conspicuous  a  place  as  any  other. 
No  distinction  is  made  in  any  branch  of  the  Federal 
service  on  account  of  religion — in  appointment, 
promotion,  or  compensation.  The  Constitution 
expressly  guarantees  religious  freedom,  and  this 
is  observed  in  spirit  and  in  letter. 

The  Government  officially  recognizes  Deity  and 
so  voices  the  common  faith  of  mankind.  In  guar- 
anteeing religious  freedom,  however,  the  Govern- 
ment does  not  permit  the  violation  of  law  or 
encourage  the  overthrow  of  custom.  Thus,  per- 
sons belonging  to  sects  who  observe  the  seventh 
day  of  the  week  as  the  Sabbath  are  not  allowed 
to  absent  themselves  from  duty  on  Saturdays  and 
serve  on  Sunday  in  lieu  thereof.  Nor  would 
any  one  be  retained  in  the  Government  service 


Faults  and  Ethii 

who  was  adjudged  guilty  of  breaking  th 
laws,  though  the  breach  of  the  laws  v. 
accordance   with  a   religious  belief.     The 
ciple  back  of  religious  freedom  is  that  il 
must  not  interfere  with  the  rights  of  an; 
citizen. 

There  are  in  the  American  servii 
widely    varying    religions,    all    working    b 
for   the   common   good.     Protestants,    Cathol 
Jews,    Mormons,    Mohammedans,    with    the 
nominations  of  each,  have  a  like  interest   in  tl 
Government   and   hold   office   under   it   with 
respect  to  their  faith.     In  so  far  as  the  Comm   I 
wealth    is    concerned    everybody    works    foi 
cause — good  government. 

Closely  related  to  religious  freedom  is  tl: 
class  and  caste.     Various  groups  of  our  cil 
ship  have  at  times  tried  to  obtain  a  | 
footing  with  the  Government,  but  to  no  I 
The  rich  man  has  no  more  standing  than  the  ; 
man;  the  laborer  can  expect  no  more  favors 
the  capitalist.     The  Government  knows  no  such 
thing  as  a  "closed"  or  an  "open"  shop;  th 
ber  of  a  secret  society  has  no  more  privileges  tha 
one  who  enjoys  no  such  affiliation.     [1 
of  the  Government  to  be  fair  to  every b<  dy,  reg 
less  of  his  position,  family,  or  standing. 

A  sad  feature  of  our  national  life  is  the  un<  I 
position  which   some   of  the   larger 
interests  have  taken  in  the  race  f<  »r  wi  alth.     '1  h 
is  exceedingly  unfortunate,  for  our  cil 


288     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

been  making  splendid  progress.  The  signs  of  the 
times  point  to  better  things,  however,  and  the 
questionable  practices  of  certain  lines  of  business 
find  no  counterpart  in  the  Government.  On  the 
contrary,  the  Federal  establishment  has  been  re- 
markably free  from  all  serious  taint.  National 
mistakes  have  been  made,  but  they  have  been  due 
to  errors  of  judgment  rather  than  to  turpitude. 

American  ideals  are  high  and  they  are  mounting 
higher.  These  ideals  are  displayed  in  our  relations 
with  other  nations.  It  has  long  been  a  policy  of 
our  Government  to  be  just  and  deal  rightly  in  all 
international  relations.  We  do  not  wish  to  de- 
spoil any  country,  wherever  situated,  nor  do  we 
want  an  unfair  advantage.  Our  diplomacy  is 
recognized  by  all  countries  as  that  of  an  honest 
effort  to  reach  a  correct  understanding,  in  which 
we  are  willing  to  go  a  little  more  than  half  way. 
The  artifices,  prevarications,  and  ambiguities  once 
popular  with  diplomats  are  no  longer  considered 
ethical.  This  country  has  been  accused  of  in- 
venting "shirt-sleeve"  diplomacy,  a  term  descrip- 
tive of  candor.  Our  straightforward  manner  of 
negotiating  international  affairs  is  not  to  be  con- 
strued as  an  abortive  innovation  or  an  attempt  at 
eccentricity ;  it  is  merely  the  reflection  of  a  people's 
character. 

The  same  open  manner  that  characterizes  the 
Government's  relations  with  foreign  powers  ob- 
tains in  transactions  with  its  citizens.  The  prin- 
ciple of  right  has  first  place — not  a  fanaticism,  but 


Faults  ;uul  Ethic  s 

a   conscientious   effort   to   meet    all 
equitably.    The    laws   of   our   country   ai 
designed  to  build  up  one  class  at  the  ex]    I 
another.     When  laws  arc   seen   to  develop  tins 
result  they  are  superseded  by  others.     The  i 
forcement  of  the  nation's  laws  is  entrusted  ton 
conscientious  in  the  performance  of  duly. 

No  higher  type  of  civic  honesty  can  1 
than  that  displayed  by  our  Federal  officials,  re- 
gardless of  party  administration.     The   people*! 
trust  is  seldom  indeed  prostituted  by  an 
and  never  by  the  Government  as  a  whole.     No 
band  of  despoilers  controls  our  Federal  patron 
as  is  the  case  in  some  of  our  municipalities;  th 
is  no  "ring,"  no  "gang"  to  rob  the  peopl< 
ethics  of  the  Government  is  so  high,  so  far  n  I 
from   taint,   that  it  is   unlawful   even   to 
political  contributions  in  Federal  buildings  or  t 
"tip"  officials  or  employes  in  the  performan 
their  duties  no  matter  how  small  the  fee.     It  i 
point  of  honor  with  the  Federal  official  to  k 
himself  above  suspicion,  and  to  this  end  the  inter- 
change of  presents  between  officials  and  em] 
or    the    acceptance    of    gifts    from    comi 
sources,   is  not  considered  ethical    inasnv. 
it  tends  to  create  awkward  obligations.     Tl 
of  office  is  a  sacred  instrumenl  solemn] 
Men  of  doubtful  character  sometimes  secure  I 
eral  appointment,  yet   these   men    seldi 
their  promise  to  execute  the  laws  in  tl. 
which  they  were  enactei  1 . 
19 


290    Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

Let  the  citizen  who  doubts  the  integrity  of  our 
Federal  office-holders  go  over  the  list  of  convic- 
tions in  malfeasance  cases  and  compare  them  with 
the  total  number  of  office-holders.  He  will  receive 
his  answer  in  the  minute  fraction  of  one  per  cent., 
a  fraction  so  small  as  to  be  an  almost  negligible 
quantity.  If  he  believe  that  the  office-holders 
are  a  predatory  class  who  will  not  see  any  of  their 
number  brought  to  trial,  let  him  consider  the 
country's  material,  moral,  and  educational  prog- 
ress. He  will  receive  an  answer  in  the  churches, 
the  schools,  and  the  factories  of  this  great  coun- 
try. Nations  do  not  prosper  under  corruption. 
Fortunately,  the  ethics  of  our  citizens  is  of  a  high 
type,  characteristic  of  the  Government.  The 
blots  and  canker-spots  appearing  here  and  there 
are  the  more  conspicuous  for  our  fair  escutcheon 
and  a  greater  effort  is  put  forth  to  remove  them. 
Our  people  are  patriotic,  but  they  closely  follow 
their  individual  business  and  at  times  are  seem- 
ingly unappreciative  of  the  efforts  of  those  set 
over  them.  This  lack  of  appreciation  perhaps  is 
only  seeming;  for,  let  the  occasion  demand,  and 
they  rise  to  defend  as  one  man  regardless  of  party 
or  geographical  section.  We  are  strong  to  uphold 
and  strong  to  condemn.  It  is  the  ethics  of  a 
young  and  vigorous  nation. 

The  same  high  plane  of  honor  which  supports 
the  ethics  of  our  Government  in  its  relation  to  the 
people  forms  the  basis  of  its  relation  to  the  office- 
holder.    The  public  employe  receives  much  better 


Faults  and  I  alms 

treatment  and  greater  freedom  in  all  I 
are  accorded  his  brother  in  commi  n  iaJ 
paternalism    of    our    Government    protects    tin- 
employe  in  a  way  beyond  the  comprehension  of 
the  private  citizen.     The  laws  thai    regulal 
conduct   grant   him   privileges   and    rights   unob 
tainable  outside  of  the  public  servii 

The  Government  regards  its  office-holder 
ladies  and  gentlemen,  and  views  with  sus] 
suggestions  to  the  contrary.     The  public  ol 
accused  of  malfeasance  of  office  is  not  required  to 
prove   his   innocence,   a  condition  that   prevails 
without  recourse  too  widely  in  commercial  life. 
In  all  its  relations  with  the  empli  >ye  the  '  >■  >vern- 
ment  proceeds  with  honor,  granting  him  the  very 
limit  of  his  rights  and  privilege's,  and  exacting  from 
him  implicit  obedience  to  official  regulations.     It 
is  expected  that  the  official  and    employe    will 
serve  the  State  with  honor  and  dignity. 


CHAPTER  XV 

WOMEN  IN  GOVERNMENT  SERVICE 

IT  is  America's  proud  boast  that  in  this  country 
woman  is  queen.  It  is  undoubtedly  true 
that  the  American  woman  exercises  greater  inde- 
pendence of  thought  and  action  than  in  any  other 
country.  Here  she  is  free  to  come  and  go  as  she 
pleases,  hampered  by  few  customs  that  work  to 
her  disadvantage.  She  is  recognized  as  man's 
equal  in  all  things  consistent  with  nature  and  his 
superior  in  others ;  and  this  recognition  is  not  one 
of  sentiment,  but  of  fact.  Writers  have  some- 
times questioned  the  wisdom  of  recognizing  this 
equality,  arguing  that  woman's  elevation  might 
turn  her  head.  It  is  unnecessary  to  state  their 
reasons ;  it  is  sufficient  to  say  that  she  has  dis- 
played quite  as  good  sense  in  solving  life's  prob- 
lems as  has  man.  The  question  of  woman 
suffrage,  to  cite  a  conspicuous  example,  seems  to 
have  been  settled  to  the  satisfaction  of  all  and 
man  has  had  nothing  to  do  with  its  solution. 

There  is  to-day  no  field  of  activity  closed  to  the 
American  woman.  The  learned  professions  have 
all  opened  their  doors  to  her ;  no  trade  is  exempt 
from  paying  tribute  to  her  industry;  she  is    a 

292 


Women  in  Government  Sen  i<  e 

prominent  factor  in  commercial  econoc 
remains  the  bulwark  of  the  home;   bul   wh 
her  status  under  the  Governmenl  ?     Do  thi 
ditions  of  low  pay  as  compared  with  man  an 
equal  opportunities  obtain  in  the  publii 
to  the  same  extent  as  in  private  life  ?     Is  she  < 
pelled  to  do  a  man's  work  and  receive  l<      pay? 

Our  working  women — meaning  by  that  term  all 
women  engaged  as  wage-earners,  of  whal 
class  or  station — rightly  consider  Federal  service 
as  a  highly  prized  field  for  their  activities.  It 
is  quite  natural  that  women  should  desire  ti  i  take 
a  hand  in  executing  the  laws  of  this  {  intry 

and  to  fill  the  posts  of  honor  open  to  our  citi 
The  history  of  the  executive  service  sh<  >ws  that 
women  have  held  positions  under  the  ( r<  ivemment 
for  many  years,  but  it  is  only  in  comparatively 
recent  years  that  their  numbers  have  been  of  any 
consequence.     Not  until  the  establishment  of  the 
civil-service  system  were  women  appointed  in  any 
considerable  numbers,  inasmuch  as  the  natui 
conditions  prior  to  that  time  was  not  fav<  iral  >le  to 
their  recognition  as  public  servants,  the  positions 
going  to  men  as  party  spoil.     No  doubt  they  v. 
have  gone  to  women  in  the  same  measure  had 
women  enjoyed  the  elective  franchise  and  played 
a  part  in  the  country's  political  hist 

Women  were  not  slow  to  take  advantaj 
opportunities  created  by  the  promulgation  of  the 
civil-service  law  in  1883,  and  their  endea 
secure  Federal  places  have  increased  rather  than 


294     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

diminished  since  that  time.  Unlike  men,  their 
efforts  are  confined  almost  wholly  to  securing  ap- 
pointment through  competitive  examination,  inas- 
much as  political  appointments  are  still  closed  to 
them.  There  have  been  but  few  instances  of 
women  securing  political  appointments,  and  then 
only  because  of  services  rendered  the  party  in 
power.  Such  appointments  have  been  so  rare 
that  they  have  always  elicited  wide  comment. 

As  a  general  proposition,  women's  opportunities 
in  relation  to  Government  service  are  much  less 
favorable  than  those  enjoyed  by  men.  This  is 
true  of  appointment,  salary,  and  promotion. 
The  bald  statement  might  mean  much  discourage- 
ment to  the  ambitious  woman ;  but  when  all  the 
facts  are  considered,  the  conditions  do  not  appear 
so  hard. 

In  the  matter  of  examination  there  is  no  dis- 
crimination between  the  two  sexes  so  far  as  the 
tests  of  fitness  are  concerned.  It  is  not  unusual 
for  men  only  to  be  admitted  to  examinations  for 
positions  which  women  could  fill,  women  being 
excluded  owing  to  their  slight  prospect  of  ap- 
pointment. To  place  large  numbers  of  women 
on  the  registers  of  eligibles  for  positions  to  which 
men  are  usually  certified  would  be  to  clog  the 
registers  and  defeat  the  object  of  the  merit  system. 

Appointing  officers,  meaning  by  that  term  the 
executives  in  charge  of  departments,  have  a  right 
to  fill  positions  with  men  or  women  as  necessity 
or  fancy  dictates.     Therefore,  in  applying  to  the 


Women  in  Government  Servio 

Civil  Service  Commission  for  certifii 
gibles  they  usually  stair  whether  men  or  v. 
are   desired   and   the   Commission    hoi 
requests    accordingly.     Thus,    assuming    tl 
vacancy  has  occurred  in  tin-  clerical   stall'  of  the 
Office  of  the  Auditor  for  the  Post-(  >ffi<      I  depart- 
ment; the  auditor  makes  the  conditions  k: 
to    the    Secretary    of    the    Treasury,  specifying 
whether  a  man  or  a  woman  is  wanted  to  fill  the 
vacancy.    The  Secretary  of  the  Treasury 
makes  a  requisition  upon  the  Civil  Service  I 
mission  for  three  eligibles  of  the  sex  desired.     If 
a  male  eligible  be  called  for,  no  woman  is  i 
fled;  if  no  sex  be  specified,  the  highest  thre< 
bles  will  be  certified  regardless  of  the  sex.     It  will 
thus  be  seen  that  the  Civil  Servio  Con  □ 
exercises  good  judgment  in  barring  women  from 
examinations  when  it  is  a  foregone  ci  inclusi) «  that 
their  chances  for  appointment  are  quite  remote 
and  when  the  registers  are  already  overflowing 
with  women.     The  conditions  might  be  n-. 
to  militate  against  men,  which  is  sometimes 

Women  make  a  considerably   better  showing 
in  examinations,  all  things  being  equal,  thai 
Taking  the  stenographer-typewrite,   examii 
as  an  index,  an  examination  thai 
the  most  difficult  clerical  examination  i 
the    Civil  Service    Commission,    recent   i 
show  that  of  the  women  taking  the  exami 
50  per  cent,  passed,  while  bu1     ;:    • 
men  were  so  fortunate.     In  the  examinal 


296     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 


departmental  clerk  74  per  cent,  of  the  women 
passed  and  but  50  per  cent,  of  the  men.  These 
figures  are  more  eloquent  than  pages  of  words  in 
commendation  of  woman's  mental  equipment  for 
the  examination  room. 

Compared  with  the  number  of  men  in  Govern-, 
ment  service  women  occupy  but  few  positions. 
According  to  the  latest  census1  statistics,  less 
than  8  per  cent,  of  the  total  number  of  civil- 
service  positions  are  filled  by  women,  the  other 
92  per  cent,  being  occupied  by  men.  Were  the 
scope  enlarged  to  include  all  positions  under  the 
Government,  whether  in  or  out  of  the  civil  service, 
the  number  of  women  would  fall  under  5  per  cent. 
Stated  in  other  words,  scarcely  one  person  in  ten 
in  the  civil  service  is  a  woman.  The  following 
table  shows  the  relative  percentage  of  men  and 
women  in  the  six  groups  of  civil-service  positions : 


Positions 

Percentage 
of  males 

Percentage 
of  females 

Professional,  techni- 
cal,  and  scientific 

94-3  % 

97-4  % 
98.7  % 
97-3  % 

83.3  % 
97-5  % 

5-7% 

2.6% 
1.3% 

Sub-clerical       and 
Miscellaneous 

2.7% 
16.7  % 

2-5% 

It  will  be  seen  from  this  table  that  more  women 

»  Census  Bulletin,  No.  94.     Washington,  1908. 


Women  in  Government  Sen  i< 

are  employed  in  the  sub-clerical  \<> 

all  others  put  together.     Under  thi 

clerical   are   such   positions   as   printer's   hel] 

copy-holder,   compositor,   counters,   and   a 
variety  of  assistants  that  arc  scarcely  cleri< 
yet  are  not  to  be  classed  as  mechanical;  ■■    i 
laborers  hold  such  places  as  seamstress,  n  | 
janitor,    and   other   positions   involving    mam 
labor.     The  pay  for  places  of  this  kind  is  usually 
small  when  compared  with  the  remuneration  i 
tached  to  the  higher  positions,  as  the  requin 
for  appointment  in  the  way  of  special  attaii 
are  quite  meagre.     Women  living  in  the  imn 
vicinity  of  the  place  of  occupation  are  ap] 
to  such  places;  the  Government  does  i 
any  one  to  incur  the  heavy  travelling  » 
accepting  appointment  to  small-paying  pli 
remote  points. 

Clerical  places  embrace  the  next  largest  number 
of  women.     Yet  in  these  places  there  is  an  .. 
of  but  one  woman  in  every  fourteen 
The  average  shows  considerably  1  >etter  in  Washii 
ton,   where  the   requirements   for   offio   holdu 
however,  are  correspondingly  higher.     It  will 
observed  that  instances  of  women  holding  i 
tive  positions  are  few  indeed. 

There  are  certain  places  under  the  Govern] 
that  women  are  peculiarly  fitted  to  occu] 
as  the  positions  of  teacher,  expert  counl 
kinds  of  operatives,  tabulator 
clerical  places  involving  speedy  routine. 


298     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

parallel  attainments  are  seldom  attracted  to  this 
kind  of  employment  and  when  utilized  are  much 
less  satisfactory  and  tractable  than  women.  The 
Secretary  of  the  Navy1  says: 

For  minor  clerical  positions  involving  routine 
duty  and  offering  little  prospect  of  promotion,  I 
have  endeavored  to  encourage  the  employment  of 
women,  against  which  some  measure  of  more  or  less 
unreasonable  prejudice  seems  to  exist  on  the  part 
of  some  officers. 

Women  are  much  harder  working  than  men, 
due  to  the  fact  that  they  stand  in  greater  fear  of 
losing  their  positions,  realizing  that  the  handicap 
of  sex  militates  against  them  in  securing  other 
employment.  A  woman  will  work  to  the  utter- 
most limit  of  endurance  if  she  think  her  position 
depends  upon  it,  whereas  a  man  is  inclined  to 
take  his  own  time  and  act  somewhat  indepen- 
dently. This  characteristic  is  well  illustrated  in 
the  tabulation  of  census  statistics.  In  taking  the 
last  census  several  instances  arose  when  certain 
statistics  were  demanded  by  the  Congress  at  a 
specified  time.  The  tabulation  of  the  statistics 
was  almost  wholly  turned  over  to  the  women  clerks 
for  the  reason  that  they  could  produce  quicker 
and  more  accurate  results  than  men  clerks ;  the 
men  balked  at  the  hard  routine,  but  the  women 
took  it  up  with  a  vim  characteristic  of  the  sex. 

1  Report  of  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  Miscellaneous  Reports, 
1905,  p.  9. 


Women  in  Government  Service 

A  large  number  of  positions  filled  1 
the  Government  Printing  Office,  and  in  the  1 1 
of  Engraving  and  Printing,  are  exceedii 
and  offer  no  easier  work  than  in  commi  n 
There  is,  however,  in  all  cases  the  ad 
shorter  hours  and  somewhat  better  pay,   w] 
add  considerable  value  to  the  positions.     Tai 
as  a  whole,  no  more  favors  are  shown  w<  >men  i 
holders  than  men;  but  there   is  a   gallantry   in 
Government  offices  and  workshops  that  do 
prevail  in  other  establishments.     This  is  a  n 
nized  part  of  official  courtesy  and  is  appreciated 
by  women  associates. 

The  higher  positions  rilled  by  women   are 
desirable  as  compared  with  those  in  commercis 
life;  indeed  they  can  scarcely  be  compared  with 
well  paying  positions  in  private  business.     As  a 
first  consideration,  they  are  removed   from  the 
blunt  manners  and  petty  commercialisms  of  the 
business  world;  then  there  is  a  reasonably  c<  rtain 
tenure  of  office,  which  is  more  than  obtains  i  ' 
where.     The  official  life  of  the  woman  clerk 
pleasant  and  congenial  in  most  casts.     Her  v. 
is  rarely  distasteful  and  is  seldom  overmuch  in 
quantity. 

As  to  the  quality  of  work  performed  by  * 
office-holders  there  is  no  doubt  that  it  is  in 
way  on  a  par  with  that  performed  by   a 
many  instances  superior.     Administral 
have  only  words  of  praise  for  their  woma 
ants,  words  that  are  sincere  and  based  i 


300     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

ciency.  While  it  is  true  that  the  women  members 
of  an  office  staff  often  engage  in  small  talk  during 
official  hours,  it  is  seldom  that  they  designedly 
evade  their  duties  or  neglect  their  work  as  is  some- 
times the  case  with  men.  They  seem  to  appre- 
ciate to  a  greater  extent  than  men  employes  the 
fact  that  office-holding  is  a  business  proposition, 
and  conduct  themselves  accordingly. 

The  efficiency  rating  of  women  is  high.  It  is  a 
rare  thing,  something  almost  unknown,  for  a 
woman  to  use  her  official  position  for  mercenary 
ends.  The  accusation  of  a  woman  for  malfeasance 
of  office  is  next  to  unknown,  only  a  few  instances 
in  the  entire  history  of  the  American  Government 
being  on  record.  This  speaks  well  for  the  consci- 
entious attitude  that  our  women  office-holders 
assume  toward  the  Government.  Women  also 
entertain  greater  pride  of  position  and  a  higher 
sense  of  dignity  than  men,  another  good  trait 
considered  from  an  official  viewpoint. 

Women's  opportunities  under  the  Government, 
considered  generally  and  in  detail  are  much  less 
numerous  than  those  coming  to  men.  This  is 
true  throughout  the  Government  in  all  its  rami- 
fications, whether  at  Washington  or  elsewhere. 
The  only  exceptions  lie  in  the  positions  which, 
by  their  nature,  are  suitable  for  women  only. 
There  is  great  difficulty  for  women  to  secure  ap- 
pointment and  the  chances  for  rising  to  the  best 
salaried   positions   are   nil. 

There  is  a  prejudice  in  nearly  all  Federal  offices 


Women  in  Government  Sen 

against  employing  women  in  positions  which 

can  fill.    This  prejudice  does  not  lie  in  an 

trary  notion  or  a  feeling  of  jeal 

of  the  officials  or  men  employes,  but  is 

the  assumption  that  man  is  the  natural  and  li 

breadwinner  and  that  every  position 

a  woman  cuts  off  some  man's  sourer  of  ini 

While  it  is  recognized  that  then 

sands  of  women  breadwinners  in  this  country 

are  the  heads  of  families  or  have  <  ithers  d< 

upon  them,  the  Government  does  not  take  i 

zance  of  such  conditions  in  making  appoint! 

except  in  isolated  cases. 

Sometimes  a  woman's  necessities  as  a  bi 
winner  come  to  the  ears  of  an  appoint  ing  i 
she  profits  by  securing  a  position.     Thes  u 
are  rare  and  the  necessities  must  be  unusual  i 
steps  of  this  kind  to  be  taken.     Officially, 
the  Government  does  not  raise  the  qu 
bread  winning  in  relation  to  appointment  as 
theory  and  practice  of  civil  servia 
efficiency  regardless  of  other  conditions 
must  be  conceded  that  nominating  and  ap] 
officers  are  human  and  often  look  farther  ii 
eligible's  claims  for  appointment    than 
qualifications.     Nominating  of 
their  bureaus  with  efficient  assistants;  mai 
them  are  very  conscientious  and  go  in 
It  is  therefore  natural  for  them  to  fa> 
in    making  a  recommendation   for 
other    conditions    being    equal,    on    thi 


302     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

that  the  man  needs  an  income  more  than  a 
woman. 

The  prejudice  against  the  employment  of  wo- 
men is  not  confined  by  any  means  to  Govern- 
ment offices.  There  is  a  strong  feeling  throughout 
the  country,  even  in  corporations  notorious  for 
money-grubbing,  that  work  should  be  given  to 
men  rather  than  to  women.  The  justness  or  rea- 
sonableness of  this  feeling,  whether  in  corporate 
or  Government  employment,  is  not  for  discussion 
here.  The  point  is  brought  out  merely  as  one  of 
fact  in  accounting  for  a  preponderance  of  men  in 
positions  that  might  be  as  well  filled  by  women. 

The  pay  of  women  office-holders  is  considerably 
more  than  that  received  for  parallel  services  else- 
where. Thus,  positions  requiring  manual  dex- 
terity without  educational  attainments  that  pay 
from  $6.00  to  $10.00  a  week  in  business  establish- 
ments pay  from  $9.00  to  $18.00  a  week  in  the  civil 
service  with  the  added  advantage  of  shorter  hours. 
Clerical  places,  such  as  those  filled  by  bookkeeper, 
stenographer,  cashier,  and  office  assistant,  netting 
from  $10.00  to  $15.00  a  week  in  business  offices 
pay  from  $15.00  to  $30.00  a  week  in  the  Govern- 
ment; or,  putting  it  in  another  way,  the  highest 
commercial  pay  for  positions  of  this  kind  equals 
the  lowest  Government  pay. 

The  highest  pay  of  women  office-holders  runs 
from  $1600  to  $2000  a  year.  The  positions  pay- 
ing such  salaries  entail  considerable  ability,  either 
educational  or  executive ;  they  include  such  posts 


Women  in  Government  S< 

as  those  of  translator,  law  clerk, 
woman,  superintendent,  expert  stati 
ographer,  inspector,  director,  mathemati 
similar   places   which   in    business   1: 
$1200  to  $1500  a  year. 

As  compared  with  the  salaries  paid  m<  1 
better  showing  is  made  by  w<  imen  than  in  thi 
of  appointment,  the  conditions  more  nearl; 
proaching  equality.     The  pay  of  women  in  the 
lowest  grades  is  less  than  that  of  men.     In  the 
medium-paying  positions  the  salaries  1  »f  m<  1 
women  rank  equally,  while  in  the  high  r  | 
the  remuneration  of  men  in   proportion   to  the 
number  employed  is  somewhat  better  thai. 
of  women.     Here  again  is  seen  a  manilY-  I 
the  prejudice  against  women,  though  the  ; 
dice  is  quite  slight,  it  being  generally  r- 
that  if  a  woman  be  appointed  at  all 
receive  the  same  compensation  as  a  1  r  like 

work.     A  woman  clerk,  for  example,  sh<  iul<  1 1 
the  same  entrance  salary  as  a  man,  and 
out  the  personal-question  sheet  of  her 
tion  she  should  specify  her  minimum 
the  basis  of  that  paid  a  man. 

In  the  matter  of  promotion  women' 
are  also  quite  equal  to  those  of  men  up  to   - 
a  year,  beyond  which  sum 
When  a  vacancy  occurs  in  one  of  the  n 
paying  positions,  the  promotioi 
next  in  line  by  seniority  and 
of  sex.     In  this  respect  Government  V 


304     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

a  pronounced  advantage  over  those  in  commercial 
service.  The  limit  of  promotion  appears  to  end 
abruptly  and  unequivocally  at  $2000,  which 
figure  few  attain.  It  is  not  the  policy  of  this  or 
any  other  Government  to  promote  women  to  the 
highest  political  or  civil-service  places  for  the 
obvious  reason  that  the  burden  of  governing 
the  nation,  as  in  the  case  of  a  family  or  a  com- 
mercial house,  must  necessarily  rest  upon  the  male 
representatives. 

For  economical  reasons  women  sometimes  seek 
the  Government  as  an  aid  to  their  husbands,  in- 
stances by  no  means  lacking  where  both  the  hus- 
band and  wife  are  in  public  service.  Cases  of  this 
kind  arise  through  purely  commercial  motives. 
This  practice  is  not  encouraged  by  the  Government. 

Federal  service  is  not  conducive  to  the  marriage 
of  women  office-holders,  particularly  those  filling 
the  better  remunerated  positions.  It  takes  a 
courageous  woman  to  surrender  a  position  paying 
$1200  or  $1400  a  year  to  marry  a  man  receiving 
no  more.  The  commercial  side  of  the  proposition 
cannot  help  but  appeal  to  the  average  woman 
and  she  hesitates  until  she  reaches  an  age  where 
the  chances  of  marrying  become  remote,  either 
through  choice  or  compulsion. 

Some  misunderstanding  exists  as  to  the  social 
standing  of  women  in  Government  service.  Many 
suppose  that  office-holding  entitles  a  woman  to 
special  privileges  and  unusual  prestige  in  the 
circles  of  society.     This  is  not  true.     The  social 


Women  in  Government  Service 

life  of  the  Government  woman  d 
any  material  respect  from  that  of  women  in  pi 
life.     She  observes  the  customs  of  polifc 
and  good  family,  choosing  such  associates  and  di- 
versions as  appeal  to  her.     She  may  be  ami 
with  various  philanthropic,  educational,  n  I 
or  social  organizations  as  she  desires.     Her 
life  is  rarely  influenced  by  her  official  position. 

The  woman  in  the  Government  is  in  a  different 
class  from  that  filled  by  the  man   office-b 
Her  prestige  is  measured  by  the  size  of  hi 
Few  persons  in  the  Government  service,  mi 
women,  receiving  less  than  $2000  a  year  gain   an 
iota  in  a  social  sense  by  serving  the  State. 
as  at  present  constituted  is  largely  dej 
income,  and  the  income  of  women   office-h 
is  by  no  means  sufficient  to  enable  them  to  claim 
social  prestige.     The  fact  of  employment,  in 
is  against  a  woman's  social   car  er.     I  ! 
sensible  women  office-holders  make  no  claim  to 
social  leadership;  but  all  are  not  sensible. 

The  wives  of  Government  official! 
precedence   according   to   their   husbands'    rank. 
Thus  the  wife  of  a  bureau  chief  taki 
cedence  over  the  wife  of  a  chief  clerk ;  tl 
a  commissioned  officer  socially  ranks  tl. 
a  scientific  expert.    The  questioi 
has  torn  the  hearts  of  many  wives  and  d 
and  has  created  some  of  the  bitl 
official  life.     Men  have  lost  positions  ar. 
tion  through  social  intrigue. 


306     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

The  influence  of  women  in  relation  to  State 
affairs  is  all  but  unknown  in  this  country.  In 
Europe  woman's  power  is  great.  There  a  social 
intrigue  managed  by  a  shrewd,  designing  woman 
may  change  a  nation's  destiny ;  it  may  precipitate 
war  or  may  bring  about  peace.  This  unique 
realm  of  influence  is  due  to  conditions  under  monar- 
chies and  is  not  characteristic  of  any  one  people. 
The  same  thing  would  obtain  in  this  country  were 
the  conditions  favorable.  Under  our  Government 
no  one  is  entirely  independent ;  democratic  insti- 
tutions are  not  favorable  to  social  scheming,  and 
as  soon  as  any  such  proceeding  comes  to  the  ears 
of  the  people  the  god  of  public  opinion  does  the 
work  of  adjustment. 

The  only  place  in  our  governmental  institutions 
where  woman  holds  a  real  influence  is  in  the  mili- 
tary and  naval  branch,  and  even  here  it  is  far 
from  the  height  it  has  attained  abroad.  The 
shrewd  wife  of  an  army  or  navy  officer  can  some- 
times secure  a  desirable  assignment  for  her  hus- 
band; conversely,  a  tactless  one  may  send  her 
husband  into  remote  corners  of  the  earth  or  con- 
sign him  to  the  most  insignificant  posts.  Social 
influence  is  a  power  in  army  and  navy  circles,  it 
is  a  rope  of  sand  in  the  higher  civil  posts,  and  is 
unknown  in  the  minor  places. 


CHAPTER   XVI 

THE   COLLEGE   GRADUATE    IN    PUB]  [I 

AMERICANS  have  a  singularly  uniform  ques- 
tion that  they  fit  to  all  things,  a  i 
that    awaits    ethical    definition,    l»ut    which 
eminently  practical — Does   it   pay?     V.  it 

be  agriculture,  business,  art,  or  learning,  tin 
tion  is  asked  with  a  sincerity  that   admits  no 
equivocation.     Perhaps  other  peoples  ask  them- 
selves the  same  question  with  the  same  □ 
but  with  us  it  is  a  habit,  a  first  thought, 
trait   indicating  destiny.     Our   individual 
tions  and  our  national  hopes  are  dependent  U] 
the  answer  to  this  little  pointed  quesl  i<  »n. 

Every  man  owes  three  duties:  ( >ne  to  his  I 
one  to  his  country,  and  one  to  himself;  the  ful- 
filment   of  these  duties  is  the  culminatii 
successful  life.     The  man  in  the  field,  the 
in  the  mill,  the  financier  in  the  mart 
scientist  bending  over  the  micros, 
in  a  degree  proportionate  to  their  capabiliti 
The  duties  rest  upon  all,  but  weigh  with 
responsibility  upon  those  wh 
learning  to  bear  them.     The  v. 
thing  from  every  man,  but  looks  to  the  m 

3°7 


308     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

education  for  a  greater  contribution  to  the  things 
that  make  for  general  betterment. 

It  is  important  for  the  college  man  to  look  about 
for  the  best  that  the  world  offers,  for  the  right 
decision  spells  success  for  himself  and  good  citizen- 
ship for  his  country.  His  long  years  of  poring  over 
books  must  not  be  wasted ;  they  must  be  made  to 
bring  forth  fruit.  It  is  therefore,  proper  for  him 
when  seeking  a  career,  whether  in  private  life  or 
under  the  Government,  to  ask  himself  the  ques- 
tion, Does  it  pay? 

In  seeking  an  answer  to  this  question  two  pre- 
mises may  be  taken  into  consideration:  The 
popular  definition  of  the  word  "pay,"  and  its 
beneficent  meaning.  In  our  rush  for  wealth  and 
haste  to  accumulate,  the  idea  of  pay  has  been 
degraded  into  a  synonym  for  "money."  If  the 
college  graduate  conceive  money  gains  as  the 
goal  of  learning  his  time  has  been  wasted; 
he  should  have  spent  those  four  college  years  in 
the  avenues  of  trade. 

In  scanning  our  long  list  of  millionaires,  men  of 
learning  are  conspicuous  by  their  absence.  This 
is  not  putting  a  premium  upon  ordinary  educa- 
tion, but  illustrates  the  specialization  of  genius. 
The  financier  does  not  pretend  to  be  at  the  front 
in  things  educational ;  that  place  is  for  the  man 
prepared  to  fill  it.  Conversely,  college  training 
is  not  a  proper  one  for  the  business  world ;  business 
training  is  needed .  There  is  no  doubt  that  a  liberal 
education  is  of  immense  value  to  the  young  man 


College  Graduate  in  Publii   Lif( 

for  whom  a  business  is  waiting  a1  thi 
university  career.     The  business  man 
son  to  college  and  that  son  may  i 
upon  graduation  he  will  be  launched  upoi 
ness  career  and  may  develop  into  a  rich  ; 
art  or  science.     The  poor  young  man.  I 
the  one  who  must  do  his  own  struggling,  b 
time  to  spend  in  battling  for  a  coll 
his  hopes  lie  in  a  career  of  money-making.     1 1 
of  working  and  accumulating  mom 
pended  upon  an  education,  he  puts  lollar 

where  it  will  earn  another  dollar ;  ins!  i 
ing  $2000  to  $3000  and  four  years'  time  in 
ing  a  college  education  he  utilizes  that  n. 
time  in  establishing  a  business,     [t  i 
self-dependent  man  of  money-making    ami 
to  waste  the  best  years  of  his  early  life-  in  learning 
things  that  will  not  net  him  a  dollar  in  the 
mercial  world.     This  is  taking  business  at  i1 
and  the  world's  estimation.     The  & 
ness  man  has  not  had  time  to  get  a  liberal  i 
tion;  his  business  has  made  him  avoid  everything 
that  offers  no  promise  of  financial  gain. 
No  one  hears  of  the  ambitious  young 
taking  a  four  years'  course  of  training  in 
office  as  a  preparation  for  a  scientifi 
a  course  would  be  laughed  at  as  silly.     V 
should    a    self-dependent    young    man    ambiti 
of  a  business  career  spend  : 
something  that  will  not  profit  him  in  d 
cents? 


310     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

Carrying  the  point  still  further,  Why  should  a 
college  graduate  prostitute  his  learning  for  dollars? 
So  voracious  is  the  American  appetite  for  gold 
that  the  money  devil  seems  to  have  got  his  fangs 
into  many  of  our  university  men,  who  bargain 
away  their  birthright  for  a  mess  of  pottage  and  a 
very  poor  mess  of  pottage  at  that.  It  is  the  habit 
of  bargain  and  sale  among  professional  men  that 
causes  the  business  man  to  throw  jeers  into  the 
teeth  of  our  young  college  graduates.  It  is  this 
money-making,  gold-grabbing,  penny-snatching 
habit  that  so  often  casts  ridicule  upon  academical 
learning.  We  hear  the  question  asked,  Docs  it 
pay?  repeated  by  lawyers,  physicians,  musicians, 
artists,  engineers,  authors,  actors,  office-holders, 
educators,  legislators,  and  sometimes  even  clergy- 
men. 

In  approaching  Government  service,  therefore, 
it  is  not  at  all  surprising  that  a  young  college 
graduate  should  ask  himself,  Does  it  pay?  As  a 
financial  proposition  there  is  but  one  answer  and 
only  one:  Government  service  very  pronouncedly 
does  not  pay.  If  considered  from  the  viewpoint 
of  a  career  offering  honorable  service  and  oppor- 
tunities for  doing  a  vast  amount  of  good  and 
making  a  name  for  self,  the  answer  emphatically 
is,  Government  service  does  pay  and  pays  hand- 
somely. 

Owing  to  world  progress  and  the  growth  of 
modern  ideas  there  never  was  so  great  a  demand 
for  educated,  trained  men  in  the  Federal  service 


College  Graduate  in  Public   l.r 

as  there  is  to-day.     This  demand  : 
no  one  field,  but  exists  in  all  1  iran<  hi 
service. 

In  respect  to  the    college  gradual 
eral  service  may  be  divided  into  thi 
Military,    administrative,    and    technical 
Positions  in  the  military  or  fighting  1 
elude  only  those  filled  by  commis 
of  the  army  and  navy,  places  that  with  fi 
tions  are  filled  only  by  graduates  of  th 
States  military  and  naval    academii 
the  graduate  of  any  other  college  or  university  is 
concerned,  the  Army  and  the  Navy  haw  nothing 
to  offer.     Admission  to  West  Point  and  Ann 
is  limited,  and  the  courses  of  study 
with  the   sole   idea  of  preparing  graduate 
taking  command  of  fighting  bodies  of  nun.     '. 
careers  are  confined  strictly  to  the  army  and  tin- 
navy,  and  their  numbers  are  relatively 
career  in  the  army  or  navy  is  open  only  t 
who  elects  it  upon  graduation  from  thi 
tory  school ;  the  man  who  waits  fi  ir  colli 
tion  finds  himself  already   too  old   to  enter  the 
fighting  wing  of  the   Government. 

The  opportunities  for  the  coll 
civil  administrative  offices  are  brigl 
day  growing  brighter.     This  division  incl 
wide  variety  of  places,  from  the  mod<  si 
in  the  civil  service  to  the  high 
within  the  gift  of  the  people-    thai 
The  office  may  be  appoints 


3i2     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

come  through  competitive  examination  or  be 
purely  a  political  post  subject  to  the  caprice  of 
party  success;  it  may  be  a  life  position  on  the 
bench,  it  may  be  a  commissionership  for  a  day. 

Many  intelligent  citizens  suppose  that  any 
shrewd  politician  is  competent  to  administer  our 
Government  and  that  a  high  degree  of  education 
is  not  requisite ;  that,  in  short,  any  one  who  can 
pass  the  "theoretical  examinations"  put  up  by 
the  Civil  Service  Commission,  or  bring  enough 
political  influence  to  bear  in  securing  appointment, 
is  fully  qualified  to  hold  executive  office.  Persons 
having  an  idea  that  our  office-holders  are  an  un- 
lettered lot  should  inform  themselves.  The  fact 
that  a  President  of  the  United  States  may  have 
served  as  mule-boy  to  a  canal  boatman  is  no 
indication  of  illiteracy;  Garfield  the  tow-boy  was 
later  Garfield  the  college  man.  It  would  surprise 
many  to  learn  that  the  majority  of  our  great  men 
are  college  graduates.  Education — meaning  by 
that  term  learning  and  experience — attains  a 
high  average  throughout  the  Government.  If 
there  be  a  career  requiring  education  it  is  that  of 
governing  a  nation.  Whatever  the  educational 
requirements  in  other  vocations,  one  cannot  know 
too  much  or  be  too  wise  in  the  State's  service. 

The  first  thing  that  a  man  seeking  Government 
appointment  must  demonstrate  is  his  learning. 
The  commercial  ability  to  ' '  read,  write  and  cipher ' ' 
is  no  recommendation;  "quick  at  figures"  has  no 
weight  in  securing  a  Federal  post.    It  is  not  enough 


College  Graduate  In  Publi<   1 

for  the  consul  to  have  a  "nose  for  I 
must  know  something  of  his  natii 
history  of  the  country  to  which  he  is 
international  law,  questions  of  the  day,  and  the 
doings  of  people  who  have  gone  I 
not  enough  for  the  head  of  a  bureau  to 
literally  the  department  secretary's  instrui 
his  duties  entail  a  wide  range  of  learning  ;hi   i 
be  something  of  a  dipl<  imal ,  he  must  k: 
bit  of  law,  and  be  able  to  act  intelligently 
multitude  of  public  questions;  he  should 
to  make  a  short  speech  when  called  upon,  an  I 
hold  a  little  bit  more  than  his  own  whi 
is  and  with  whomsoever  he  is  associated 
things  do  not  come  to  a  man  over  the  commen 
counter.     Learning — which   is   but   half   i 
cation — comes  from  the  university;  and  when  t 
applicant    for    a    Government    : 
academic  degree  it  means  somethu 
sents  at  least  theoretical  preparation. 

Except  in  centres  of  foreign  elements  and  a 
remote  districts,  candidates  for  el 
longer  advertise  their  laek  of  acad<  n 
The  voters  of  a  Congressional 
ter    how   vague   their    ideas    i 
qualifications   of   candidates   in    othei 
somehow  want   their  own  i 
considerably  above  the  average  in  edu 

So  great  has  the  demand  grown  I 
of  high  attainments  that   the  < 
is  not  a  college  gradu  i1     is  1 


314     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

doubting  Thomas  may  prove  this  for  himself  by 
glancing  at  the  biographies  of  our  Senators  and 
Representatives  as  published  in  the  Congressional 
Directory,  the  official  register  issued  by  the  Con- 
gress several  times  yearly.  Of  the  Senators  and 
Representatives  serving  in  the  Sixtieth  Congress, 
64  per  cent,  are  college  graduates.  This  shows 
that  the  college  graduate  has  a  distinct  advantage 
over  the  candidate  of  lesser  attainments  and  that 
voters,  recognizing  his  superiority,  give  him  their 
preference.  This  speaks  well  for  an  untram- 
melled electorate. 

The  high  appointive  offices  are  quite  generally 
filled  by  men  with  college  or  university  degrees. 
It  is  the  exception  to  find  members  of  the  judiciary, 
commissioners,  secretaries  of  departments,  bureau 
chiefs,  and  heads  of  offices  who  have  not  had  a  col- 
lege education.  Members  of  the  diplomatic  corps 
are  somewhat  better  educated,  university  degrees 
and  post-graduate  work  being  more  in  evidence. 

So  strong  is  the  demand  for  college-trained  men 
that  many  civil-service  posts  quite  subordinate 
in  their  character  are  filled  by  graduates.  The 
reason  for  this  requirement  of  candidates  for 
Federal  service  is  not  because  the  academic  degree 
has  grown  common  and  is  to  be  found  everywhere, 
but  because  the  Government  has  found  that  broad 
learning  and  sound  education  pay.  There  is  not 
the  least  likelihood  that  the  demand  for  college- 
trained  men  will  diminish ;  the  requirements  will 
rather  be  raised.     If  indications  count  for  aught, 


College  Graduate  in  Public  Life 


the  future  will  see  an    ina 
university   men    filling   our   G 
The  man  ambitious  of  a  career  inth 
vice  would  do  well,  therefore,  to  profit  I 
of  the  times  and  prepare  himself  accordii 

It  is  in  the  scientific  field 
vice  that  the  college  graduate  i 
The   Government   supports   a   large    numl    i 
bureaus  whose  working  bodies  arc  compo 
most  wholly  of  university  graduates.     The 
tist  always  has  been  a  conspicuous  part  i 
Government;  he  has  demonstrated  his   pi 
worth  so  emphatically  that  the  Governmei 
longer  content  to  assign  him  solely  to  the  w<  irk  i  A 
planning  and  executing  scientific  undertakii 
but  is  turning  him  into  the  immense   field 
research. 

There   are   now   a   number   of   well    i 
Federal  laboratories  devoted  to  scientific  : 
gations  on  original  lines.     A   I 
suggestion  of    carrying    on    purely    experu 
work  at  the   public   expense   would    I 
passed  over  as  a  fool's  vagary.    Thi 
now  carried  on  by  the  United  S1 
includes  investigations  in  medii 
chemistry,   ethnology,   g 
trial  magnetism,   mensuration,  and   a   •. 
specialties  covering  agriculture  ai 
bandry.     The   Government    n 
discoveries  to  be  made:  it  | 

Federal  scientists  have  already   □ 


316     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

name  for  themselves  that  various  private  institu- 
tions throughout  this  and  foreign  countries  are 
continuously  seeking  their  services  through  offers 
of  handsome  salaries  and  perquisites.  The  pub- 
lishing of  any  special  work  by  a  Federal  scientist 
results  in  his  being  offered  high-salaried  positions 
in  private  establishments.  So  promising  are  these 
offers  that  many  of  our  scientists  cannot  resist 
accepting;  others  refuse,  preferring  a  career  with 
the  Government. 

As  in  other  branches  of  high-grade  Federal  ser- 
vice, the  scientist  reaps  but  little  financial  reward. 
There  are  to-day  doctors  of  philosophy  on  the 
Federal  payroll  at  less  than  $100  a  month;  men 
with  university  degrees  are  at  work  for  $40  a 
month.  Does  this  mean  that  the  Government  is 
stingy?  As  a  rule,  no;  it  means  that  new  lines 
of  work  are  being  taken  up  and  that  men  are 
glad  of  the  opportunity  to  get  valuable  experience 
at  nominal  financial  remuneration.  The  true 
scientist  rightly  puts  his  profession  first,  his 
career  second,  and  salary  last ;  his  ambitions  lie 
higher  than  dollars,  and  he  sees  in  the  Government 
a  splendid  opportunity,  notwithstanding  the  red 
tape,  to  realize  his  hopes.  Under  the  Govern- 
ment a  scientist  has  the  time,  the  encouragement 
and  the  financial  means  of  gratifying  his  ambi- 
tions. Moreover,  by  virtue  of  his  official  position 
his  prestige  becomes  very  distinct,  a  condition 
that  is  especially  recognized  throughout  Europe, 
and  this  brings  him  into  fellowship  with  the  ablest 


College  Graduate  iii  Public  Life 

men  his  profession  has  to  offer;  if   hi 
progressive,  he  grows  in  demand  at 
ings  and  may  become  an  authority  in 
field. 

Taking  the  college  graduate  as  a  iw  tor  u 
Government  we  find  him  predominant,     i 
the  place  of  the  leader;  to  him  the  (."ant:;. 
looks  for  development  and  execution  of  thi 
ciples  that  make  for  good  government.     1 1 
democratic   our    people   may   be,    however   b 
pendent  in  the  matter  of  learning,  hov 
inclined  to  the  fostering  of  various  cults,  th- 
bow  to  the  man  of  education  and  acknowl 
him  their  leader.     And  this  is  rightly  BO.     [1 
the  history  of  the  world  that  all  progn 
upon  education,  and  the  same  thing  must 
to    our    Government.     No    matter    from 
depths  of  mterrningling  illit<  i  1  learnii 

electorate  is  culled,  the  man  of  educal 
lead. 

The  college  graduate  has  a  breadth 
and  a  grasp  of  life  that  especially  tit  hin 
taking  the  affairs  of  a  great  nation.     Th 
problems  now  facing  this  nation  and  the 
will  develop  others,  problems  thai 
men  to  solve.     It  is  folly  ti 
of  critical  questions  to  the  immature 
ciplined  mind.     The  inclination  is  1 
the  mere  man  of  business  in  - 
ment  and  give  more  authority 
the  man  of  liberal  education.     A 


31 8     Practical  Federal  Civil  Service 

even  developed  toward  filling  strictly  political 
places  with  the  best  men,  regardless  of  party. 
This  has  been  a  growing  policy  for  some  years, 
and  has  made  the  Government  a  promising  field 
for  exploitation  by  college  men  in  search  of 
honorable  careers. 

The  college  man  taking  up  Federal  service  as  a 
career  should  supplement  his  university  course 
by  post-graduate  work  in  law,  colonial  administra- 
tion, political  and  social  economy,  and  Govern- 
mental methods.  He  should  not  generalize  too 
much  in  planning  his  career,  but  should  specialize 
in  certain  branches  of  public  work.  The  graduate 
whose  preference  is  toward  science  should  arrange 
a  scientific  career,  the  one  with  executive  capacity 
will  find  administrative  work  particularly  suitable. 
It  is  not  necessary  to  confine  his  efforts  to  work 
within  the  so-called  civil  service ;  it  is  proper  for 
him  to  assist  in  the  election  of  good  men  to  office, 
as  this  is  a  duty  that  every  one  owes  to  citizenship. 
It  is  a  matter  of  personal  choice  whether  he  shall 
go  before  the  people  as  a  candidate  for  elective 
office,  or  adopt  public  service  through  the  civil 
service  or  political  appointment.  A  combination 
of  the  two  methods  may  be  adopted;  many  of 
our  Representatives  have  served  successfully  in 
appointive  positions  before  placing  their  names 
on  a  party  ticket,  while  others  have  served  in  the 
Congress  and  then  filled  honorable  careers  in 
appointive  office. 

The  college  man  looking  to  the  Government  for 


College  Graduate  in  Publii   Life 

his  career  must,  above  all,  be  pi  [\ 

not  do  for  him  to  cling  to  1 

Latin  and  Greek,  as  such,  havi 

national  life.    The  dreamer  is  as  much  • 

place  in  the  Government  office  as  he  is  is 

poration.     No  Federal  office-holder 

by  burying  himself  in  much  learning.     The  '. 

ing  he  has  acquired  in  col 

stepping-stone  in  his  career;  it  musl 

pline  and  mental  training  that  will  enable  him  to 

become  a  useful  citizen  and  an  intelligent  ] 

servant. 

Another  thing  to  bear  constantly  in  mil. 
public  office  is  a  trust.     The  mere  fulfil  li: 
is  not  enough;  the  truly  successful  i 
out  of  his  way  to  accomplish  things 
measure  everything  by  a  single  standard — public 
benefit. 


INDEX 


Abuses,  70,  to  1,  27 1 , 

Advertisement,  self,  182,  242, 
282 

Affability  as  an  asset,  243 

Age  of  appointees,  131;  of- 
fice-holders, 79,  252 

Age  requirements  for  exam- 
ination, 108 

Agricultural  opportunities, 
210,  224 

Aide,     scientific,     168,     172, 

259 

Aliens  in  civil  service,  108, 
109 

Ambition,  loss  of,  274 

Applicants  for  examination, 
number  of,  45 

Application  for  examination, 
106 

Appointees,  ages  of,  131 

Appointive  offices,  20 

Appointments,  124;  declina- 
tion of,  144;  in  insula r 
possessions,  112;  pre- 
ference, 135;  pro 
of,  128;  temporary,  136; 
number  of,  125;  ol 
men,  294 

Apportionment,  54 

Appreciation,  240 

Apprentices,  132 

Arithmetic,  examinations  in, 

9°.  93 
Associates,  official,  241 
Attendant,  in  marine  hospi- 
tal, 51 
Authority,  centralization  of, 
4.  IO>  7° 


B 


Beginning 
Blue  I 

entr 

'7' 
Bureau    ol    Ei 

Printing, 
Business     colli 

in,    191, 

nidi. 


Cabinel .  what  it  is,  1 1 
Caret 

sciei 

Call  1 

I.     ! 

Charj 
210 


321 


322 


Index 


Civil  service,  provisions  of 
act,  40;  commission, 
work  of,  47,  188;  exten- 
sion, 46;  schools,  98 

Class  and  caste,  287 

Classification,  49 

Classified  service,  meaning 
of  term,   20;  extent  of, 

5° 

Clerks,  entrance  salaries  of, 
160,  168;  technical,  195; 
women,  296 

Closed  shop,  287 

Coaching  applicants  for  ex- 
amination, 102 

Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey, 
194,  267 

College  graduates,  307 

Colleges,  commerical,  98 

Colonial  administration,  215, 

3l8   . 
Commercialism,      191,      193, 

232,  251,  287 

Commercial  colleges,  98 

Compositors,  133 

Congenial  work,  230 

Congress,  powers  of,  8 

Constitution,  provisions  of,  8 

Consular  service,  205 

Contracts,  securing,  23 

Copying,  examination  in,  93, 

94 
Corporations,       government 

regulation  of ,  192,  193 
Correspondence,  official,  29 
Corruption,   political,    5,    58, 

288 
Cramming  for  examination, 

104 
Credit,  failure  to  give,  280 
Crime,  108 
Criticism,  30,  46;  of  foreign 

nations,  277;  of  officials, 

238,  283    . 
Custom-house  service,  53 

D 

Departmental  service,  53 
Departments,  list  of,  1 1 


Dignity  of  office-holders,  43 
Diplomacy,    "shirt    sleeve," 

288,  289 
Discrimination,  279,  299 
Dismissal  from  service,  108 
Draftsmen,  demand  for,  129, 

138,  168,  172 
Duty  of  citizens,  4,  288 

E 

Economics,  219 

Education,  college,  307;  se- 
curing an, 260 

Educational  requirements, 
117 

Editorial  work,  200 

Efficiency,  60;  of  women,  300 

Elective  offices,  20 

Eligibility,  125 

Employees,  faults  of,  271; 
thrift  of,  248 

Epidemic  diseases,  221 

Errors,  how  treated,  59 

Ethics  in  government,  271, 
285 

Examination,  105;  applica- 
tion for,  106;  cut  and 
dried,  114;  grade  sub- 
jects, 89;  for  insular 
positions,  112,  113,  217; 
optional  subjects,  118; 
persons  barred  from, 
108;  practicability  of, 
88;  special,  113;  stage- 
fright,  120;  of  women, 
294 

Excepted  positions,  21 

Executive  order,  20 

Experience  as  an  asset,  46, 
116,  131,  191,  193 


Faults,  191,  271,  279;  of 
citizens,  283;  of  em- 
ployes, 271;  of  officials, 
279 

Favored  class,  46,  55,  99, 
250 


Index 


Favoritism,  55,  72,  182,  279, 

299;  in  contracts,  36 
Fee  for  examination,  no 
First-grade  subjects,  90 
Foreigners  in  American  ser- 
vice, 108,  109 
Forestry,  224 
Free  thought,  69,  286 


"Gangs,"  political,  289 
General  Land  Office,  194,  267 
Geological  Survey,  194,  267 
Good  habits,  140,  252 
Government,  evolution  of,  2; 

methods  of,  22,  190,  318; 

organization  of,  1 
Government  printing  office, 

34,  53.  299       . 

Government  service  as  a 
career,  226;  stepping- 
stone,  255 

Grade  subjects,  90 

"Graft,"  58,  288 

H 

Hard  work,  34,  61 

Haste  in  examination,  119 

Health,  public,  221,  251 

History  of  civil  service,  38 

Hobby,  adoption  of,  237 

Hours  of  work,  81 

House  of  Representatives,  8 


Iconoclasm,  246 

Idleness,  238 

Immigration  service,  143 

Indian  service,  53 

Individualism,  234,  235,  274 

Industry,  140 

Ineligible  applicants,  108 

Influence  in  securing  posi- 
tions, 55,  109,  181 

Insular  possessions,  govern- 
ment of,  13;  positions  in, 


Internal  Ri 

lnt<  >xi<  .n  ' 
Isthmian  I 


J 


Jews  in  Amerii 
Judiciary,  10 


Laborers,  examination  1 
Law,  education  in, 

Laziness,  277 

Ltse  majt 
Letter-writing,    2>>,    91, 

94 
Library  methi  "Is,  203 
Life-saving 

Loyalty,  a 

M 

Mail-carrier,  170 
Marriage     of     office-hol 

3°4 

Mechanics,  1  (a 
Medical  research 
Merit  system.   ; 

•e  of  President 
Messenger  boys 
Methods,   governn  1  1 

3 '  8 
Mistakes,  hoyt  tr 

Monarch, 
Mormons, 


N 


National  problems, 
Navy  yards,   1  ; 

Negligence,   l< 

t'hr 

Newspaper      : 


324 


Index 


o 


Oath  of  office,  139 
Occupations,   kinds,    17,    45, 

S7 

Officials,  faults  of,  271,  279 

Office-seeking,  44 

One-man  power,  4,  10,  26,  70 

Open  shop,  287 

Opportunities,  186;  agricul- 
ture, 210;  college  gradu- 
ates, 311;  colonial  ser- 
vice, 217;  consular  ser- 
vice, 205;  financial,  187; 
business  clerks,  191, 
193;  editorial  work,  200; 
educational,  260;  en- 
gineering, 194;  library 
methods,  203;  special- 
ism, 189;  stenography, 
198;  technical  clerks, 
195;  translating,  202; 
women's,  294,  300 

Organization  of  government, 
1 

Oriental  politics,  218 


Panama  service,  113 
Patent-examiners,  206 
Patent  Office,  34,  267 
Paternalism,  291 
Patriotic  service,  233 
Penmanship,  examination  in, 

9i.  93>  94 
Pensions,  civil,  249 
Pension  Office,  34 
Personal    exploitation,    182, 

242,  282 
Personal  question  sheet,  120, 

129,    142,    303;   service, 

7i 
Philippine  service,  112,  135 
Planning  a  career,  252 
Political     activity,     69,     73; 
contributions,    289;    in- 
fluence, 55,  109,  18  i 
Politics  corrupt,  5;  Oriental, 
218 


Porto  Rican  service,  112 

Positions,  classified,  20;  ex- 
cepted, 21;  insular,  112, 
113,  217;  kinds,  17,  45, 
87;  unclassified,  21;  wo- 
men's, 296 

Post-office  service,  34,  53, 143 

Precedent,  245 

Preparation,  83 ;  colonial  ser- 
vice, 217 

President,  powers  of,  10 

Prestige  of  college  education, 
316;  government  pa- 
tronage, 35;  women 
clerks,  305 

Probation,  139 

Problems,  in  agriculture,  224; 
colonial  administration, 
215;  economics,  219; 
public  health,  221;  suf- 
frage, 220 

Progressiveness,  236 

Promotions,  144,  178;  agita- 
tion for,  276;  of  women, 

303 
Protestants,  287 
Public  health,  221 
Public  ownership,  219 
Publicity,  36,  242 


Railroad  experience,   193 
Railway  mail   clerk,   34,   53, 

61 ,  132,  170 
Rank,  246;  of  women,  305 
Rating  examination  papers, 

121 
Recommendations,      official, 
35;  for  appointment,  56, 
108 
Red  tape,  why  it  exists,  25 
Re-examination,  122 
Reinstatement,  149 
Religious  freedom,  69,  286 
Removal  from  office,  65 
Research  work,  223,  315 
Responsibility     of     subordi- 
nates, 31 


Index 


Rich  men  in  office,  233, 
"Rings,"  political,   5,   289 
Rough  draft,  examination  in, 
92,  201 


Sailors,  preference,  135 

Salaries,  151,  188;  beginning 
low,  244;  clerical,  160; 
consuls,  206;  doi 
177;  entrance,  130,  164, 
244,  303;  foreign  gov- 
ernments, 155,  178; 
inequalities,  174;  libra- 
rians, 205;  patent-ex- 
perts, 207;  statisticians, 
205 ;  women,  294,  302 

Saving  money,  250 

Scientists,  45,  160,  168,  172, 

259.  3*5 
Schools,  commercial,  98 
Secret  societies,  287 
Secrecy,  official,  36,  242 
Self-advertisement,  182,  242, 

282 
Senate,  relation  to  House,  8 
Seniorage  in  promotion,  245 
Sociability  as  an  asset,   243 
Socialism,  4 

Soldiers,    preference    in    ap- 
pointment, 135 
Southern  office-holders,  56 
Special  examinations,  113 
Specialism,     137,     142,     189, 
194,  206,   209,  232,   235 
Spelling,  examination  in,  90, 

92 
Spoils  system,  38 
Statisticians,  pay  of,  205 
Statistics,  specialism  in,  205 
Stenographers,  women,   295, 

_       303     , 

Stenography,  129,   132,    138, 

198,  268,  295,  303 
Stepping-stone,    government 

service  as,  255 
Suffrage  problem,  220 
Superannuation,  75 


"  Sun-'  I 
Syst.  : 


1  work, 

Tenure  1 
229 

Thesis-writ  in;' 

i  grade  sir 
Thrift    of    public    1  1 

2  4  s 

Tips  prohibited, 
Trades  uni<  inisn 
Training  school,  government 

as,  258 
Transfer,    145;    to   '• 

ton,  143 
Translating,  202 
Tuberculosis,  222 
Typewriting,   knowl 

132,  196 

U 

Unclassified  positions,  21 
Understudies,  245 
Unionsism,  tra 
Universitj 

vantages  of,  307 

V 

■ 
Voters,  duties  of,  4 

W 
Washingi 

Worm 

300; 

Work,  a  ngeni 
of,  I 
238;  research, 

.  276 


"The  best  summary  at  present  available  of  the 
political  history   of  the   United  Stat< 

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American  Political  History 
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By  Alexander  Johnston 

Edited  and  Supplemented  by 

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G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons 

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